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Descriptive  Prospectus  on  Application. 


THE 

LIFE  OF  THE  SPIRIT 

AN   INTRODUCTION  TO   PHILOSOPHY 


BY 

RUDOLF   EUCKEN 

PROFESSOR  OF   PHILOSOPHY  IN  JENA 


TRANSLATED    BY 

F.  L.  POGSON,  M.A. 


SECOND    EDITION 
WITH  INTRODUCTORY  NOTE  BY  THE  AUTHOR 

(SECOND  IMPRESSION) 


WILLIAMS   &   NORGATE 

14  HENRIETTA   STREET,    COVENT  GARDEN,   LONDON 

NEW   YORK:    G.   P.    PUTNAM'S    SONS 

1909 


First  printed  December  1908 

Second  Edition  first  printed  February  1909 

,,  Second  Impression,  December  1909 


PREFACE 

IN  the  present  volume  philosophy  is  not  re- 
garded as  a  known  quantity,  and  no  attempt 
vo  is  made  to  impart  it  to  the  individual   by  a 

•V. 

tr  comparative   survey  of  its    different    depart- 
^  ments  ;  but  it  is  treated  as  a  problem — the  pro- 
blem that  it  in  reality  continually  becomes  in 
the  course   of  the  centuries.     The  book  re- 
.  presents  a  particular   view  of  the  nature   of 
'  philosophy,  and  undertakes  to   show  that  it 
must  be  conceived  in  this  way  if  it  is  to  be 
r  equal  to  the  demands  which  are  made  upon  it 
£  by  the  life  of  mankind,  and  particularly  by  the 
present  situation.     By  tracing  out  as  simply 
and   clearly  as  possible  a  few  of  the  leading 
lines  on  which  the  age-long  work  of  the  human 
spirit  has  proceeded,  it  is  shown  that  our  spiri- 
tual life  is  not  built  up  in  peace  and  security 
on  a  given  foundation,  but  that  doubt  and 


vi  PREFACE 

conflict  extend  right  down  to  the  foundation, 
and  that  no  progress  of  our  inner  life  is  possible 
without  a  reversal  of  our  first  impressions. 
If  philosophy  thus  appears  intimately  bound 
up  with  all  the  striving  of  humanity  and 
the  necessity  for  spiritual  self-preservation, 
then  the  re-emergence  of  a  philosophy  of  life 
and  existence  becomes  an  urgent  requirement 
in  the  complication  and  confusion  of  the  present 
situation,  and  in  the  struggle  which  we  have 
to  wage  to-day  for  a  spiritual  centre  for  our 
civilisation  and  a  perception  of  the  meaning 
and  value  of  life.  It  is  because  this  struggle 
concerns  not  merely  the  learned,  but  every 
man  who  does  not  despair  of  attaining  to  inner 
independence  and  true  fulness  of  life,  that  it 
is  hoped  this  book  will  appeal  to  a  wider  circle 
of  readers,  especially  those  who  share  the 
author's  strong  and  painful  conviction  of  the 
inadequacy  and  indeed  the  emptiness  of 
modern  civilisation,  in  spite  of  all  its  outer 
ostentation.  RUDOLF  EUCKEN. 

JENA,  May  1908. 


IT  may  render  the  present  volume  easier  to 
understand  if  the  author  endeavours  to  sketch 
in  a  few  words  what  he  aims  at  accomplishing. 
My  efforts  have  been  inspired  by  the  strong 
feeling  that  the  present  spiritual  situation  is 
highly  unsatisfactory,  and  in  particular  that 
there  is  a  sharp  opposition  which  divides 
mankind  and  depresses  the  level  of  life.  The 
greatness  of  our  age  lies  in  work,  in  the  sub- 
jection and  shaping  of  the  world  of  objects 
to  human  ends :  this  work  has  gained  more 
and  more  brilliant  triumphs,  and  has  altered 
the  whole  of  our  existence.  But  these  triumphs 
have  not  been  accompanied  by  a  correspond- 
ing growth  in  the  content  of  life  and  the  soul 
of  man.  Work  directs  our  efforts  towards 


viii  INTRODUCTORY  NOTE  BY  THE  AUTHOR 

external  ends,  and  thus  brings  into  play 
only  a  part,  and  indeed  a  more  and  more 
insignificant  part,  of  our  faculties.  Hence  all 
technical  achievements  do  not  preserve  us 
from  inner  emptiness :  work  overwhelms  our 
soul  and  makes  us  to  a  continually  increasing 
extent  a  mere  means  and  instrument  of  its 
restless  activity.  In  opposition  to  this  a 
counter  -  movement  has  lately  arisen  ;  man 
tears  himself  away  from  work,  and  opposes 
to  it  his  own  subjective  condition ;  he  seeks 
happiness  more  especially  by  treating  life  as 
an  art,  by  cultivating  refined  and  pleasurable 
emotions,  by  shaking  off  the  burden  of  matter 
and  the  objective  world.  But  the  sestheticism 
which  aims  at  transforming  the  whole  of  ex- 
istence into  pleasure  and  enjoyment  provides 
it  with  no  high  aims  and  no  real  content : 
it  makes  life  a  mere  play  on  the  surface  of 
things,  which  may  be  attractive  and  delightful 
for  a  certain  time,  but  which  in  the  end  is 
bound  to  produce  weariness  and  repulsion. 
Hence  it  becomes  a  matter  of  importance 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE  BY  THE  AUTHOR    ix 

to  rise  above  the  opposition  between  soulless 
work  and  empty  subjectivism ;  this,  however, 
cannot  possibly  be  accomplished  from  the  out- 
side, but  requires  the  strenuous  exertion  and 
deepening  of  life  itself.  To  help  towards  this 
end  is  the  special  task  of  philosophy,  which  is 
thus  seen  to  be  indispensable  to  humanity, 
for  it  is  philosophy  which  can  best  co-ordinate 
life  into  a  whole,  investigate  the  specific 
character  of  the  whole  so  formed,  press  for- 
ward from  the  outer  appearance  to  the  inner 
depths,  weigh  the  significance  of  each  element 
in  the  universe,  and  try  to  ascertain  the  mean- 
ing of  the  whole.  But  any  such  thorough 
investigation  of  life  must  make  it  evident  that 
human  life — in  a  large  measure,  at  any  rate 
— falls  within  a  wider  concept  of  Nature, 
and  displays  a  close  kinship  with  the  animal 
world.  It  is  equally  evident,  however,  that  the 
possibilities  of  human  life  are  by  no  means 
entirely  exhausted  in  the  life  of  Nature,  but 
that  with  it  a  new  stage  of  reality  arises, 
which  we  call  spiritual.  This  stage  does  not 


x     INTRODUCTORY  NOTE  BY  THE  AUTHOR 

merely  exhibit  particular  new  qualities,  but 
also  involves  an  entirely  new  kind  of  exist- 
ence :  psychical  life,  which,  in  the  stages  below 
the  human,  forms  a  mere  appendage  and 
serves  only  to  promote  physical  self-pre- 
servation, here  first  reaches  independence, 
gives  rise  to  entirely  new  realities  and  values, 
and  forms  a  realm  which  is  co-ordinated 
into  a  whole  by  internal  connections.  This 
whole  cannot  possibly  be  set  down  as 
a  merely  human  product ;  it  must  spring 
from  the  universe  and  thence  be  communi- 
cated to  man.  In  appropriating  it  he  appears 
as  a  being  who  has  a  share  in  a  cosmic 
movement  and  is  called  upon  to  further  it. 
But  the  spiritual  life  is  no  mere  possession  to 
be  enjoyed  by  man.  His  average  existence 
usually  forms  a  turbid  medley  in  which  nature 
is  strong  and  spirituality  weak.  Hence  the 
object  to  be  aimed  at  is  first  to  build  up  in 
opposition  to  this  average  life  a  realm  of 
genuine  spirituality  by  means  of  united  work, 
and  then  to  raise  humanity  up  to  it.  This 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE  BY  THE  AUTHOR   xi 

transforms  the  whole  of  our  existence  into 
a  problem  and  a  task ;  at  every  point  life 
must  be  raised  to  an  essentially  higher  level, 
a  reversal  of  its  previous  course  must  be 
accomplished ;  our  view  of  the  world  and 
the  kind  of  life  we  lead  must  be  given  a 
specific  shape ;  humanity  as  a  whole  has  here 
a  common  work  to  carry  out.  From  this 
starting-point  a  new  idealism  is  developed, 
a  philosophy  which  may  be  termed  activism. 
This  activism  differs  both  from  the  older 
speculation  and  from  modern  Pragmatism. 
From  the  former  it  is  distinguished  by  its 
repudiation  of  intellectualism,  by  its  ground- 
ing of  knowledge  on  life,  and  by  its  constant 
return  to  the  content  of  life  as  the  funda- 
mental and  controlling  fact.  From  Pragma- 
tism it  is  differentiated  by  the  fact  that  it 
does  not  make  the  welfare  of  the  mere  man, 
whether  as  an  individual  or  in  society,  its 
leading  aim,  but  sees  in  man  the  emergence 
of  something  superhuman,  divine,  and  eternal, 
and  makes  this  the  sure  guiding  star  of  its 


xii  INTRODUCTORY  NOTE  BY  THE  AUTHOR 

efforts ;  by  this  means  it  raises  them  above 
the  contingency  of  the  individual  and  the 
vicissitudes  of  time,  and  gives  to  man's  life 
a  worthy  content. 

But  where  endeavour  is  thus  concentrated 
chiefly  on  the  content  and  connections  of  life, 
the  consideration  of  the  general  movement  of 
history  will  acquire  great  significance.  For 
the  spiritual  life  does  not  lie  ready  to  hand 
in  the  consciousness  of  individuals  ;  it  reveals 
to  us  its  depths  and  its  goals  only  through 
manifold  experiences  and  hard  struggles ; 
these  experiences  and  struggles,  with  the 
development  of  spiritual  life  which  they  have 
brought  about,  form  the  heart  and  core  of 
the  movement  of  history.  Hence  history, 
when  regarded  from  the  philosophical  point 
of  view,  leads  us  to  consider  the  height  of 
spiritual  life  which  has  been  already  attained  ; 
not  only  so,  but  with  regard  to  the  different 
leading  problems  of  philosophy,  the  process 
of  tracing  out  the  fate  they  have  met  with 
in  the  course  of  the  centuries  is  an  excellent 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE  BY  THE  AUTHOR  xiii 

means  of  taking  bearings  and  of  seeing  both 
what  in  them  is  permanently  necessary,  and 
what  in  this  connection  the  present  requires 
from  the  thinker.  This  attention  to  history 
is  not  meant  to  alienate  us  from  the  present, 
but,  by  increasing  our  philosophical  insight, 
it  should  reveal  to  us  a  wider  and  richer 
present  than  that  of  the  mere  moment.  This 
is  the  justification  for  the  attempt  made  in 
this  volume  to  fix  our  position  with  regard 
to  the  present  tasks  of  philosophy  by  means 
of  an  historical  survey. 

RUDOLF  EUCREN. 

JENA. 


TRANSLATOR'S    NOTE 

IT  is  my  pleasant  duty  to  thank  the  friends 
who  have  helped  me  in  various  ways.  The 
translation  owes  much  to  my  discussions  with 
Mr  G.  G.  Berry,  whose  keen  insight  has 
cleared  up  many  a  difficulty.  I  am  also  much 
indebted  to  Mr  W.  R.  Boyce  Gibson  for 
generously  allowing  me  to  see  in  manuscript 
the  concluding  portion  of  his  forthcoming 
translation  of  Prof.  Eucken's  Lebensansckau- 
ungen,  and  for  giving  me  the  benefit  in  other 
ways  of  his  intimate  knowledge  of  Prof. 
Eucken's  philosophy.  To  Prof.  L.  P.  Jacks 
I  owe  the  correct  interpretation  of  the  passage 
from  Hegel  quoted  on  p.  54.  The  translation 
in  the  "  English  and  Foreign  Philosophical 
Library"  does  not  seem  to  bring  out  the  real 
meaning,  but  it  was  unfortunately  too  late  to 


xvi  TRANSLATOR'S   NOTE 

alter  it.  Finally,  I  am  greatly  indebted  to 
Prof.  Eucken  himself  for  courteously  giving 
me  information  on  a  considerable  number  of 
doubtful  points.  For  any  errors  that  there 
may  be,  I,  of  course,  am  solely  responsible. 

F.  L.  POGSON. 

OXFORD,  December  1908. 


CONTENTS 


PAGES 


INTRODUCTION 1-29 

Philosophy  the  queen  of  sciences,  I ;  ancient  philosophy, 
2 ;  religion  and  philosophy,  2  ;  philosophy  and  its  oppon- 
ents, 3 ;  internal  conflicts  of  philosophy,  4 ;  the  aim  of 
philosophy,  5-7 ;  the  influence  of  philosophy,  8 ;  philo- 
sophy as  the  representative  of  necessities  of  thought,  9-1 1  ; 
philosophy  and  life,  11-14  >  spiritual  life,  15-20  ;  history, 
philosophy,  and  the  spiritual  life,  21-29. 


CHAPTER  I 
UNITY  AND  MULTIPLICITY  .....       30-103 

The  systemalisation  of  life,  30 ;  demand  for  unification, 
30 ;  Greek  philosophy  and  unity,  32-34  ;  Plato's  doctrine 
of  ideas,  35  ;  Aristotle's  scheme  of  life,  37-40 ;  the  creative 
activity  of  art,  40  ;  philosophy  and  universal  reason,  42  ; 
the  function  of  religion,  43  ;  Plotinus  and  the  search  for 
unity,  44  ;  unity  and  the  spiritual  life,  46  ;  mysticism,  47  ; 
Christianity  and  unity,  49  ;  the  ethical  conception  of  God, 
49  ;  the  Christian  conception  of  God,  50  ;  the  Greek 
conception  of  the  Deity,  51  ;  exaltation  of  the  individual, 
53  ;  the  Church  and  individual  freedom,  55  ;  contradictions 
of  Christianity,  55  ;  the  absorption  of  Christianity  by  the 
Church,  57-59 ;  Scholasticism,  61  ;  freedom,  63-68 ; 
modern  science  and  its  aims,  68-72  ;  new  forms  and  aims 
of  philosophy,  72  et  seq.  ;  individualism  and  society,  83  ; 
personality  and  the  world,  84 ;  civilisation  and  the 
spiritual  life,  87  ;  German  philosophy,  88  ;  the  medieval 
ecclesiastical  system,  92  ;  history  and  the  spiritual  life, 
94 ;  philosophy  and  the  spiritual  life,  100-103. 


xviii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  II 

PACKS 

CHANGE  AND  PERSISTENCE — TIME  AND  ETERNITY     104-181 

The  endlessness  of  time  and  the  longing  for  eternity,  105  ; 
religion  and  its  influences,  106  ;  Greek  philosophy  and  its 
influence,  107-1 12  ;  the  search  for  the  persistent,  112-1 13  ; 
the  Greek  ideal  of  life,  115  ;  eternal  rest  the  supreme  goal 
of  religion,  117  ;  the  Christian  scheme  of  life,  119-123  ; 
the  Church  the  guardian  of  unchangeable  truth,  124  ; 
classical  antiquity  and  the  beginnings  of  Christianity,  126  ; 
Scholasticism,  126;  mysticism,  127;  persistence  and  medi- 
evalism, 128  ;  the  Renaissance  and  the 'Reformation,  132  ; 
"middle  ages":  derivation  of  the  term,  133;  the 
doctrine  of  evolution,  135  et  seq.  ;  the  conception  of 
evolution  in  Faust ,  139  ;  time  and  eternity,  139  et  seq.  ; 
three  phases  of  evolution,  140-141  ;  natural  science  and 
Positivism,  141  ;  co  ordination  needed  in  spiritual  work, 
145  ;  modern  philosophy,  146  ;  historical  modes  of  thought, 
151 ;  natural  law,  153  ;  the  futility  of  a  restless  life,  157  ; 
the  rejuvenescence  of  the  old  Mysticism,  159  ;  rationalism 
and  optimism,  161  ;  historical  evolution  an  absurdity, 
163  ;  the  medieval  system  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
164-167  ;  the  illusory  recourse  to  history,  167-168  ;  in- 
dependent work,  1 6s  ;  the  movement  of  history,  169  ; 
faith  in  the  ultimate  rationality  of  reality  the  basis  of 
spiritual  life,  176  ;  the  co-operation  of  philosophy  and  the 
reconciliation  of  time  and  eternity,  178-181. 

CHAPTER  III 
THE  OUTER  WORLD  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD      .     182-274 

The  need  and  use  of  philosophy,  182-184;  tne  two 
worlds,  183  ft  seg.  ;  dualism,  185-186;  materialism,  187; 
spiritualism,  1 88  ;  monism,  188-190  ;  the  relation  between 
idealism  and  naturalism,  193-199;  Greek  idealism  and  its 
complications,  199-208  ;  the  later  ages  of  antiquity  and 
the  two  worlds,  208-210;  Christianity  and  the  two 
worlds,  211-218;  Christianity  the  subject  of  constant 
strife,  21 8  ;  the  fundamental  conception  of  Christianity, 
219  ;  the  Christian  conception  of  the  sacrament,  225  ;  the 
trend  of  modern  life  and  the  relation  of  the  two  worlds, 
227-232 ;  the  scientific  conception  of  the  soul,  232  ;  in- 
tellectual culture  and  the  question,  234-238 ;  modern 


CONTENTS  xix 


natural  science,  238-241  ;  defects  of  naturalism,  246-249; 
spiritual  life  a  new  life,  256 ;  religion  and  the  spiritual 
life,  262-264 ;  the  creative  activity  of  art,  264-266 ; 
science  and  the  question,  266  ;  the  close  connection  of  the 
spiritual  with  the  natural,  270-273. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  PROBLEM  OF  TRUTH    .  .  ,     275-333 

Truth  and  happiness :  opposing  conditions,  275 ; 
Augustine  and  Spinoza,  277-278  ;  the  conception  of 
truth,  280-283  ;  the  classical  idea  of  truth,  284-293 ; 
Scepticism  and  truth,  291  ;  Christianity  and  the  question, 
294-302  ;  faith  the  way  to  truth,  294-296  ;  difficulties  re- 
garding faith,  296  ;  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  and  faith, 
297-298  ;  faith,  the  remover  of  doubt,  itself  an  object  of 
doubt,  302;  the  Enlightenment,  307-313  ;  critical  philo- 
sophy, 313-319;  constructive  speculation,  319-321; 
Positivism,  322  ;  Pragmatism,  322-326 ;  truth  and  meta- 
physics, 322  326  ;  modern  philosophy  and  truth,  327-333. 

CHAPTER  V 
THE  PROBLEM  OF  HAPPINESS       ....     334-394 

Work  and  happiness,  334 ;  the  craving  after  happiness, 
335-337  ;  a  survey  of  world  history  in  connection  with 
happiness,  337  el  seq.  ;  the  Greek  idea  of  happiness,  338- 
339  ;  Plato's  conception  of  happiness,  340-342  ;  Aristotle 
and  happiness,  343-345  ;  an  examination  of  the  ideal  of 
happiness  of  the  great  classical  thinkers,  345-357;  Plotinus' 
ideal  of  happiness,  350-355 ;  the  Christian  pursuit  of 
happiness,  357  ;  the  Christian  conception  of  pain,  360- 
363  ;  modern  idea  of  happiness,  366-373  ;  limitations  of 
knowledge  and  complications  arising  therefrom,  373  et 
seq- ;  aesthetic  culture,  383-384 ;  happiness  and  the 
question  of  personality,  384-386  ;  philosophy  and  happi- 
ness, 391-394- 

CONCLUSION         .         .         .  395-403 


THE 

LIFE  OF  THE  SPIRIT 

INTRODUCTION 

THAT  philosophy  is  not  only  full  of  problems, 
but  that  philosophy  itself  as  a  whole  is  and 
remains  a  problem  is  shown  by  the  varied 
estimation  in  which  it  has  been  held  and  the 
disputed  place  which  it  occupies  in  the  life  of 
mankind.  On  the  one  hand  it  is  called  the 
queen  of  the  sciences,  and  a  life  dedicated  to 
it  seems  the  acme  of  human  existence ;  minds 
of  the  highest  rank  have  laboured  to  serve  it, 
and  it  has  often  intervened  with  great  effect 
to  modify  the  whole  condition  of  humanity. 
This  modifying  influence,  moreover,  has 
appeared  in  a  great  variety  of  ramifications. 


2  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

At  one  time,  as  in  the  case  of  Plato,  philosophy 
has  wrested  pure  ideals  from  the  dark  tangle 
of  everyday  life  and  has  held  them  up  as  sure 
guiding  stars  to  action.  At  another  time,  as 
in  the  case  of  Aristotle,  it  has  sought  to  grasp 
the  fulness  of  reality  in  a  unified  whole  and  to 
penetrate  the  whole  of  life  as  an  organizing 
influence.  At  still  another  time,  as  in  the 
later  ages  of  antiquity,  it  has  been  a  support 
and  finally  a  consolation  amid  the  cares  and 
troubles  of  life.  In  modern  times  again  it 
has  acted  as  an  influence  in  liberating  men's 
minds  and  as  a  torch  of  advancing  culture. 
Moreover,  it  has  in  addition  carried  out  a 
vigorous  examination  of  the  traditional  condi- 
tion of  life  and  has  sought  to  enlighten  men  in 
the  most  thoroughgoing  way  as  to  the  limits 
of  their  powers.  No  great  spiritual  achieve- 
ment has  seemed  possible  without  the  help 
and  co-operation  of  philosophy ;  whenever  it 
has  been  wanting  life  has  lost  in  spontaneity, 
in  freedom  of  movement,  in  depth.  Religion 
especially  has  often  enough  experienced  this 


INTRODUCTION  3 

to  its  grave  injury.  When  we  follow  this  line 
of  thought  philosophy  appears  as  an  indispens- 
able and  most  important  part  of  the  spiritual 
possessions  of  humanity. 

But  on  the  other  hand  every  survey  of 
human  experience  shows  that  at  all  times 
philosophy  has  had  its  zealous  opponents,  who 
have  declared  that  it  was  superfluous  and 
indeed  have  rejected  it  as  harmful.  This  is 
the  case  with  the  specialist,  who  believes  that 
the  work  of  knowledge  is  completely  defined 
when  the  world  has  been  divided  up  among 
the  different  scientific  disciplines ;  with  the 
practical  man  who  regards  brooding  and  reflec- 
tion as  a  hindrance  to  keenness  of  action ;  and, 
finally,  with  the  believer  in  positive  religion, 
who  thinks  that  philosophy  undermines  the 
security  of  faith  and  fills  men  with  proud  self- 
confidence.  But  more  dangerous  than  any 
attack  from  without  is  the  fact  that  philosophy 
is  uncertain  of  itself,  that  its  work  is  dislocated, 
that  it  is  divided  into  different  schools,  each 
one  of  which,  in  order  to  maintain  itself,  thinks 


4  THE  LIFE  OF  THE  SPIRIT 

it  necessary  to  refute  all  the  others.  This  con- 
flict threatens  to  remain  unsettled  and  without 
result ;  it  seems  in  the  course  of  the  centuries 
to  grow  rather  than  to  diminish.  For  whether 
the  Sophists  were  in  the  right  with  their 
subjectivism,  or  Socrates  with  his  doctrine  of 
concepts,  whether  happiness  in  life  is  to  be 
sought  by  the  way  of  the  Stoa  or  by  that  of 
Epicurus,  is  still  an  open  question.  Of  course 
the  individual  actors  have  withdrawn  from  the 
stage,  but  their  ideas  have  remained  and 
passionately  continue  the  fight,  like  the  spirits 
on  the  Catalaunian  Fields.  From  this  stand- 
point it  remains  incomprehensible  how  philo- 
sophy can  have  gained  a  deep  influence  over 
thought  and  life ;  but  if  this  influence  must  be 
accepted  as  an  indisputable  fact,  we  are  con- 
fronted by  a  riddle  which  necessarily  impels 
us  to  take  our  bearings  both  as  to  the  task  and 
the  position  of  philosophy. 

It  is  true  that  an  attempt  has  been  made  to 
get  rid  of  the  above  contradiction  by  means  of 
a  conception  of  philosophy  which  would  make 


INTRODUCTION  5 

it  acceptable  to  all :  the  only  question  is 
whether,  in  such  a  case,  everything  is  not  lost 
which  lends  it  independence  and  value.  In 
earlier  times  as  well  as  at  the  present  day 
it  has  often  been  held  up  as  the  sole  aim  of 
philosophy  to  co-ordinate  the  work  of  the 
different  sciences  and  to  blend  their  results 
into  a  unified  picture:  the  more  investiga- 
tion becomes  specialized,  it  is  said,  the  more 
necessary  is  a  special  discipline  which  should 
concern  itself  with  any  unity  that  may 
be  left ;  in  surveying  and  discussing  the  pre- 
suppositions, the  methods,  and  the  results  of 
the  individual  sciences,  philosophy  has  an 
important  task  to  which  no  objection  can  be 
raised.  No  doubt  there  is  a  task  for  philo- 
sophy here,  but  every  attempt  to  gain  a  more 
exact  conception  of  it  gives  rise  to  com- 
plications and  difference  of  opinion.  How  are 
we  to  conceive  of  this  surveying  and  co- 
ordinating activity  ?  If  it  is  bound  to  take 
the  sciences  as  they  come,  if  it  has  no  right 
of  revision,  if  it  can  venture  on  no  further 


6  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

development,  then  to  be  sure  it  has  escaped 
all  danger,  but  at  the  same  time  it  has  lost  all 
significance.  For  if  it  is  thus  limited  it 
becomes  merely  a  registering  of  the  results  of 
the  particular  sciences,  an  encyclopaedia  which 
is  not  a  genuine  science,  though  a  generous 
use  of  language  might  give  it  the  name.  In 
particular  it  is  hard  to  see  how  a  mere  encyclo- 
paedia could  have  exerted  upon  thought  and 
life  those  deeply  disturbing  and  fruitfully 
elevating  influences  which  the  examples  of 
Plato  and  Kant  are  enough  to  show  have 
actually  proceeded  from  it.  And  what  if  the 
individual  sciences  do  not  harmonize  without 
demur,  if  bitter  conflicts  arise,  if,  for  example, 
one  department  of  science  contends  for  the 
exclusive  operation  of  mechanical  causality, 
but  another  craves  at  least  some  shred  of 
freedom  therefrom  ?  Shall  philosophy  quietly 
suffer  such  a  contradiction  to  remain  and  be 
ready  to  submit  to  it  ?  According  to  the 
above  conception  it  would  not  have  the 
slightest  remedy. 


INTRODUCTION  7 

On  the  other  hand  one  who  desiderates  for 
philosophy  a  separate  domain  of  activity  may 
perhaps  be  inclined  to  think  that  it  carries  out 
a  synthesis  of  the  manifold  in  accordance  with 
the  particular  nature  of  the  contemplating 
subject ;  that  it  is  not  so  much  a  science 
governed  by  strict  rules  as  an  unfettered  art, 
and  that  it  therefore  remains  inseparably  bound 
up  with  the  nature  of  the  individual.  Ac- 
cording to  this  conception,  philosophy  would 
offer  an  incalculable  variety  of  pictures  of  the 
world,  some  of  which  would  quickly  fade, 
while  to  others  their  inherent  spiritual  power 
would  give  the  capacity  to  subjugate  men's 
minds  and  to  last  for  thousands  of  years. 
This  view  seems  to  be  favoured  by  the  fact 
that  the  history  of  philosophy  shows  us  a  great 
abundance  of  figures.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
this  conception  contains  a  certain  amount  of 
truth  ;  the  subjective  element  is  particularly 
important  in  philosophy,  for  a  man's  philosophy 
/can  least  of  all  be  separated  from  the  whole 
of  his  personality.  But  on  the  other  hand 


8  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

the  influence  which  philosophy  has  exercised 
throughout  history  remains  unexplained.  For 
how  could  subjective  pictures  of  that  kind 
cause  such  passionate  excitement  and  stir,  or 
give  rise  to  so  much  love  and  hate  ?  Besides 
this,  philosophy  does  not  merely  offer  an 
unlimited  number  of  individual  pictures,  but 
it  also  shows  persistent  types  which  seem  to 
embody  the  fundamental  tendencies  of  human 
existence  and  effort.  Hellenism  especially  has 
given  rise  to  an  abundance  of  types  to  which 
humanity  has  remained  faithful  as  it  has  gone 
on  its  way,  and  which  are  continually  producing 
new  effects.  In  spite  of  all  the  progress  of 
knowledge,  Platonism  and  Aristotelianism, 
Stoicism  and  Epicureanism  still  maintain  their 
position.  Besides,  it  would  be  incompre- 
hensible how  philosophy  as  a  purely  individual 
and  subjective  reflection  of  reality  could  affect 
the  contents  of  thought  and  alter  the  conditions 
of  life,  or  how  it  could  be  for  humanity  a  source 
of  freedom,  of  security,  and  of  rejuvenation. 
Philosophy  has  been  often  enough  a  com- 


INTRODUCTION  9 

pelling  force  which  has  transformed  the  whole 
of  the  work  of  the  spirit.  Whence  this  com- 
pulsion if  it  rests  purely  on  the  caprice  of  the 
individual  ? 

It  is  true  that  an  attempt  has  been  made  to 
avoid  the  danger  of  such  a  relapse  into  pure 
subjectivity  by  regarding  philosophy  as  the 
representative  of  necessities  of  thought  which 
have  not  been  sufficiently  emphasized  in  every- 
day life  and  in  the  other  sciences.  By  un- 
folding and  fully  developing  these  necessities 
philosophy  has  the  right  and  the  duty  of 
transcending  its  starting-point  and  reorganiz- 
ing its  representation  of  reality.  It  thus 
acquires  compelling  force  and  is  bound,  in 
particular,  to  set  itself  the  task  of  radically 
removing  all  the  contradictions  which  appear 
in  our  world  of  thought.  This  seems  to  lift 
its  task  above  the  risk  of  pure  subjectivity  and 
to  make  it  a  matter  which  concerns  the  whole 
of  humanity.  But  this  conception,  too,  con- 
tains more  complications  than  are  apparent  at 
first  sight.  The  experience  of  history  shows 


10  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

that  there  is  no  unanimity  as  to  the  exact 
nature  of  that  which  is  to  count  as  a  necessity 
of  thought.  Great  thinkers  have  absolutely 
contradicted  one  another  on  this  subject: 
Hegel,  for  example,  saw  in  contradictions  a 
power  favourable  to  the  production  and  pro- 
motion of  spiritual  life,  while  to  Herbart,  on 
the  contrary,  they  seemed  absolutely  intoler- 
able. Does  not,  then,  the  search  for  necessities 
of  thought  bring  us  back  to  the  very  subject- 
ivity beyond  which  it  was  to  carry  us  ?  And 
we  may  be  doubtful  of  the  right  of  a  thinking 
which  rests  purely  upon  itself  to  impose  its 
demands  on  the  totality  of  things.  Thinking, 
in  its  immediateness,  is  something  which  goes 
on  in  man :  if  things  are  to  conform  to  thought, 
does  there  not  arise  a  merely  human  interpreta- 
tion of  reality  which  may  be  quite  foreign  to 
reality  itself?  But  the  strongest  motive  in 
the  pursuit  of  truth  is  the  desire  to  get  beyond 
the  small  and  narrow  circle  of  the  merely 
human  and  to  gain  full  participation  in  the 
life  of  things  themselves,  in  the  breadth  and 


INTRODUCTION  11 

truth  of  the  universe.  It  is,  above  all,  this 
inner  expansion  and  liberation,  this  carrying 
of  man  beyond  himself,  which  makes  the  work 
of  great  thinkers  valuable  and  helpful  to  us ; 
a  merely  human  truth  is  a  contradiction  in 
terms,  is  no  truth  at  all.  If  we  cannot  thus 
be  sure  of  some  sort  of  inner  connection  with 
the  universe  in  our  thinking,  if  we  cannot 
found  our  thinking  on  a  wider  and  deeper 
life,  then  philosophy  does  not  exist  in  the 
sense  in  which  it  was  understood  at  the  height 
of  its  activity,  and  in  which  it  has,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  influenced  mankind. 

We  are  thus  thrown  back  from  thought  on 
to  life — life  as  it  co-ordinates  itself  from  within 
to  some  sort  of  unified  whole,  directs  its  powers 
to  particular  ends,  and  adjusts  itself  to  the 
totality  of  its  environment.  We  need  only 
examine  the  individual  thinkers  more  exactly 
as  regards  the  inner  texture  of  their  work  and 
the  aims  which  have  actuated  them,  to  become 
aware  that,  behind  what  stands  before  us  as 
fully  accomplished,  there  lies  a  particular 


12  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

shaping  of  life,  and  that  here  is  the  point  of 
division  which  separates  thinkers  and  drives 
them  to  do  battle  with  one  another.  Only 
because  it  was  founded  in  such  a  life  has 
thought  attained  a  finished  form  as  well  as  a 
constraining  necessity ;  only  from  this  starting- 
point  has  it  gained  the  power  of  taking  reality 
up  into  itself  and  striving  after  inner  illumina- 
tion. The  products  of  thinking  have  varied 
very  largely  for  the  reason  that,  corresponding 
to  the  connection  with  life  which  is  the  founda- 
tion of  thought,  the  work  of  knowledge  has 
been  from  the  first  conceived  differently.  The 
failure  to  recognize  this  connection  between 
thought  and  life  is  mostly  to  blame  for  the 
fact  that  the  strife  of  the  philosophers  with 
one  another  has  turned  out  to  be  so  unedifying 
and  so  fruitless.  The  contest  always  ran  the 
risk  of  moving  in  a  circle,  because  it  never  got 
back  to  the  point  where  in  reality  the  division 
lies,  and  because  it  treated  as  the  main  thing 
what  was  the  effect  of  deeper  causes.  This 
connection  of  thought  with  life  enables  us  also 


INTRODUCTION  13 

to  understand  that  in  the  case  of  philosophy 
the  work  of  knowledge  is  so  closely  connected 
with  the  nature  of  the  personality. 

But  this  connection  of  thought  with  life 
does  not  seem  to  lead  us  out  of  our  complica- 
tions to  a  secure  standpoint.  The  danger 
again  arises  of  a  wide  separation  and  division 
of  mankind  into  separate  circles.  For,  after 
all,  different  types  of  life  do  develop  and  range 
themselves  side  by  side  and  put  forth  equal 
claims.  Who  is  to  decide  to  which  of  them 
belongs  the  higher  right  and  leadership,  and 
which,  therefore,  may  produce  a  general  picture 
of  reality  that  should  be  reckoned  as  definitive  ? 
Besides,  this  gives  no  explanation  how  a  move- 
ment which  arises  in  man  could  go  beyond 
him,  bring  him  into  connection  with  the  great 
world,  and  put  him  in  possession  of  its  meaning. 
And  without  this  there  is  no  knowledge  of 
truth  in  the  sense  in  which  philosophy  strives 
to  attain  it. 

All  these  discussions  come  in  the  end  to 
this,  that  the  existence  of  philosophy  is  bound 


14 

up  with  definite  conditions  which  are  by  no 
means  perfectly  obvious,  and  which  no  mere 
acuteness  or  reflection  can  bring  to  light,  but 
as  to  whose  existence  or  non-existence  only 
experience  can  decide.  If  thought  is  to  have 
a  root  and  a  basis  in  life,  and  if  at  the  same 
time  it  is  to  have  a  constraining  power  and  a 
character  of  universality,  there  is  only  one 
possibility.  There  must  appear  within  reach 
of  man  a  life  which  can  rise  above  divisions 
and  can  counteract  them,  a  life,  further,  which 
can  develop  out  of  its  own  movement  compre- 
hensive connections  and,  indeed,  can  show 
itself  active  in  moulding  the  world.  Finally, 
it  must  be  a  life  which  not  only  touches  and 
interprets  what  it  lays  hold  of  from  the  outside, 
but  shapes  it  from  within  and  admits  it  to  its 
own  depths.  Only  if  man  is  able  in  this  way 
to  share  in  a  universal  life  and  thereby  outgrow 
the  limits  of  his  particular  nature,  can  his 
thinking  advance  from  a  mere  cognition  of 
things  to  a  true  knowledge.  Thus  there 
results  the  possibility  and,  indeed,  the  neces- 


INTRODUCTION  15 

sity  of  a  new  way  of  looking  at  the  world  in 
contrast  to  that  practised  by  the  individual 
sciences. 

The  question  then  is  whether  we  have  evi- 
dence of  a  life  of  this  kind,  which  shapes  our 
world  and  places  us  in  a  different  fundamental 
relationship  to  reality.  We  believe  that  we 
can  confidently  answer  this  question  in  the 
affirmative.  For  we  only  need  to  gain  a 
keener  apprehension  of  what  is  called  spiritual 
life,  and  to  set  it  in  sharper  relief  against  the 
environment  in  which  human  existence  in- 
volves it,  to  become  aware  that  it  offers  the 
very  thing  which  we  desire  and  seek.  Spiritual 
life  is,  above  all,  the  formation  of  a  coherent 
system  in  life.  In  it  not  merely  the  poten- 
tialities of  the  subject  are  aroused  and  height- 
ened, but  confronting  the  subject  there  arises 
a  field,  and  indeed  a  whole  kingdom,  of  an  ob- 
jective nature.  Subject  and  object  are  compre- 
hended in  a  self-contained  activity  and  assist 
each  other's  further  development.  Nothing 
short  of  such  a  comprehension  of  the  two  sides 


16  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

can  supply  life  with  contents  and  values  which, 
with  all  their  inwardness,  possess  an  indubitable 
superiority  over  all  merely  human  powers  and 
opinions.  It  is  in  this  way  that  whole  pro- 
vinces such  as  science  and  art,  jurisprudence 
and  morality,  grow  up  and  develop  their  own 
contents,  their  own  motives,  their  own  laws. 
These  provinces,  however,  strive  towards  unity 
and  finally  coalesce  in  a  unified  world.  In 
fact,  they  belong  on  the  subjective  side  from 
the  very  beginning  to  such  a  unified  whole, 
and  only  in  connection  with  it  can  they 
solve  their  own  problem.  Thus  we  find  that 
within  man  there  is  something  which  goes 
beyond  him ;  he  himself  must  become  some- 
thing different,  and  his  whole  life  assumes 
the  form  of  a  problem  when  a  unified 
world  thus  makes  its  appearance  in  his  life 
and  distinguishes  itself  from  that  which  is 
merely  human. 

But  what  is  the  significance  of  this  new  life 
in  relation  to  the  whole  of  reality  ?  This  can 
only  be  estimated  by  comparing  it  with  that 


INTRODUCTION  17 

from  which  it  distinguishes  itself  and  which  it 
strives  to  transcend.  In  the  first  place,  the 
realm  of  nature  surrounds  us  all  and  penetrates 
deep  into  the  human  soul.  Here  we  see  reality 
dissected  into  purely  individual  elements.  Life 
is  resolved  into  the  relations  of  these  elements  ; 
it  passes  in  purely  individual  processes,  and 
does  not  get  beyond  mere  matter-of-fact.  For 
there  exists  here  no  life  of  the  whole,  which 
should  comprehend  the  diversity,  take  it  up 
into  itself  and  thence  draw  profit.  But  the 
amount  of  psychical  life  which  exists  here  has 
not  yet  reached  the  stage  at  which  it  might  be 
called  an  individual  life.  For  in  the  realm  of 
nature  psychical  life  does  not  attain  any  in- 
dependence ;  it  remains  a  mere  concomitant 
phenomenon.  It  does  not  stand  out  as  an  end 
in  itself,  but  forms  a  mere  means  and  instru- 
ment for  the  preservation  of  living  beings  in 
the  hard  struggle  for  existence.  But  the  great 
change  that  ensues  when  spiritual  life  comes 
upon  the  scene  is  that  now  the  inner  life 

becomes  independent  and  begins  to  prepare 

2 


18  THE   LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

for  itself  a  world  of  its  own.  This  change, 
with  its  introduction  of  an  essentially  new 
kind  of  life,  and  its  construction  of  a  world 
from  within,  with  its  own  particular  contents, 
values,  and  order,  can  never  be  the  work  of 
man  by  himself.  It  is  only  to  be  understood 
as  a  movement  of  the  whole  of  reality  itself, 
which  surrounds  man,  takes  hold  of  him, 
and  drives  him  on.  Thus  the  movement 
towards  spiritual  life  appears  as  a  movement 
of  reality  towards  an  independent  conscious 
existence.  A  depth  of  the  world  is  revealed 
which  before  was  hidden,  and  this  gives  rise  to 
a  complete  transformation  which  must  produce 
an  essentially  new  view  of  reality.  But  this 
new  life,  by  the  mere  fact  of  its  having  con- 
structed a  state  of  civilization  which  exists 
side  by  side  with  what  is  purely  natural,  has 
proved  its  power  to  make  its  way  in  opposition 
to  pre-existing  forces.  The  achievement  of 
civilization,  when  at  its  height,  in  producing 
essentially  new  objects  and  essentially  new 
human  characters,  can  have  been  made  possible 


INTRODUCTION  19 

only  by  the  force  of  an  independent  spiritual 
life,  seeking  to  unfold  itself. 

With  the  recognition  of  this  movement 
there  is  a  change  in  the  whole  representation 
of  our  spiritual  work.  It  is  no  longer  accessory 
to  the  main  body  of  reality,  and  it  is  not  a 
private  concern  of  man  by  himself,  but  in  it 
we  recognize  a  portion  of  a  world-movement, 
of  which  mankind  is  the  servant.  From  this 
standpoint,  that  work  can  claim  superiority 
both  over  isolated  individuals  and  over  all 
mere  subjectivism. 

But  what  is  true  of  spiritual  work  generally 
applies  also  to  philosophy.  Man  does  not, 
out  of  his  own  inner  consciousness  and  possibly 
quite  at  random,  put  a  particular  complexion 
on  the  world,  but  his  philosophy  can  only 
possess  truth  and  power  so  far  as  the  life  of 
the  world  comes  to  clear  consciousness  in  it 
v  and  reveals  its  own  depth.  The  co-ordination 
of  the  manifold,  which  philosophy  undertakes, 
cannot  be  imposed  upon  reality  from  the  out- 
side, but  must  come  from  within  it  and  conduce 


20  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

to  its  unfolding.  The  task  of  philosophy  now 
is  to  enhance  and  thus  to  foster  that  co-ordina- 
tion in  the  work  of  thought.  In  opposition 
to  the  circumstances  of  humanity  it  will  have 
to  be  the  champion  and  enforcer  of  the  neces- 
sities of  the  spiritual  life,  and  bring  home  clearly 
to  man  the  connections  of  that  life.  From 
this  point  of  view  it  is  quite  comprehensible 
how,  throughout  the  course  of  history,  phil- 
osophy was  bound  to  accompany  the  life  and 
the  struggles  of  humanity,  and  how  it  could 
lift  them  to  a  higher  level.  It  was  able  to  do 
this  because  it  was  not  an  opinion  of  man  by 
himself,  but  because  it  was  a  work  and  a  demand 
of  the  spiritual  life.  It  is  only  as  a  philosophy 
of  spiritual  life  in  this  sense  that  philosophy 
can  attain  to  independence  and  maintain  the 
position  assigned  to  it  by  its  friends.  And 
from  this  point  of  view  its  work  can  be  seen 
to  be  a  connected  task  which  is  common  to 
the  whole  of  humanity. 

But  at  the  same  time,  this  conception  ex- 
plains why  philosophy  is  exposed  to  so  much 


INTRODUCTION  21 

uncertainty  and  strife.  For  spiritual  life  is 
not  something  that  is  ready-made  for  us,  but  is 
a  difficult  problem — in  fact,  the  problem  of 
problems.  Certainly  our  being  must  be  some- 
how grounded  in  it  if  we  are  to  make  an 
effort  after  it,  but  as  far  as  our  consciousness 
and  activity  are  concerned,  we  must  first  win 
it  and  make  it  our  own :  only  thus  can  it  gain 
a  clear  shape  and  a  definite  content.  But  this 
further  opening  up  takes  place  in  the  indi- 
vidual not  so  much  through  reflection  or 
imagination  as  through  the  labour  of  the 
whole  and  as  the  work  of  history.  What  first 
makes  history  in  the  distinctively  human  sense 
possible,  is  the  fact  that  here  a  revelation 
of  spiritual  life  gets  started  and  gains  ground 
as  the  development  of  a  new  stage  of  reality. 
But  the  testimony  of  experience  shows  that 
the  course  of  this  historical  movement  is  by 
no  means  sure  and  simple.  In  the  first  place, 
spiritual  life  has  no  domain  of  its  own  in  the 
human  sphere  and  no  independent  starting- 
point,  but  it  develops  out  of  our  life  in 


22  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

nature  and  society  and  cannot  dispense  with 
it.  In  doing  so  it  does  not  appear  from  the 
beginning  as  a  whole,  but  starts  from  separate 
points  and  gradually  extends  to  larger  con- 
nections, which  again  may  diverge  from  one 
another.  And  its  progress  through  history 
is  not  orderly  and  sure,  but  resembles  rather  a 
groping  and  seeking.  It  makes  a  step  forward, 
but  encounters  insurmountable  obstacles  and 
is  often  driven  back  a  long  way ;  new  starting 
points  are  tried,  but  they  lead  to  a  similar 
result.  The  life  is  often  split  into  opposites, 
and  then  again  the  impulse  towards  reconcilia- 
tion gains  the  upper  hand :  much  drops  out  of 
sight,  only  to  come  up  again  later  and  exercise 
new  influence,  and  so  the  whole  becomes  more 
and  more  complicated  and  involved.  In  par- 
ticular a  permanent  complication  proceeds 
from  the  relation  of  the  spiritual  life  to  man. 
Spiritual  life  stands  in  need  of  the  feelings  and 
faculties  of  man,  and  so  far  as  it  gains  these  it 
raises  him  above  that  which  is  merely  human. 
But  at  the  same  time  this  merely  human 


INTRODUCTION  23 

element  persists  and  is  always  ready  to  drag 
down  the  spiritual  life  to  its  own  level.  It 
does  this  especially  when  no  great  spiritual 
tension  and  no  powerful  spiritual  creative 
effort  exercises  a  counteracting  influence.  At 
such  times  it  almost  appears  as  if  this  merely 
human  element  looked  upon  the  spiritual  life 
as  an  enemy,  and  would  like  to  take  vengeance 
on  it  for  its  troublesome  interference.  Noth- 
ing contributes  more  to  impress  a  particular 
character  on  human  history  than  the  fact  that 
spiritual  life  has  to  develop  in  the  unsuitable 
and  indeed  hostile  medium  of  human  existence. 
But  if  spiritual  life  has  often  been  dragged 
down  to  the  level  of  the  merely  human,  it  has 
not  submitted  for  any  length  of  time  to  this 
degradation.  It  has  always  escaped  again, 
and,  however  much  it  might  be  disintegrated, 
it  has  always  made  a  fresh  effort  to  regain 
its  unity ;  in  fact,  throughout  all  the  mistakes 
and  passions  of  men  it  has  made  substantial 
progress  in  self-realization.  It  has  been  able 
to  liberate  life  and  thought  from  the  tyranny 


24-  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

of  the  mere  passing  moment,  and  by  separat- 
ing the  temporal  from  the  eternal,  the  human 
from  the  spiritual,  to  gather  up  the  results  of 
thousands  of  years,  so  as  to  be  taken  in  at  one 
view.  It  has  been  able  to  reawaken  what  to 
all  external  appearance  had  perished,  and  to 
hold  fast  everything  that  it  recognized  as 
valuable  in  a  present  which  is  above  time  and 
includes  time.  Philosophy  in  particular,  just 
as  spiritual  life  generally,  takes  its  stand  on 
this  time-including  present.  History,  however, 
appears  on  this  view  not  as  a  kingdom  of  pure 
reason,  but  as  a  scene  where  a  certain  amount 
of  reason  wins  through  in  the  teeth  of  enormous 
resistance. 

From  this  point  of  view  the  movement  of 
history,  with  its  elevation  of  spiritual  life  above 
the  position  and  caprice  of  mere  man,  gains  a 
special  significance  for  philosophy,  and  in  fact 
becomes  an  introduction  to  a  philosophy  of 
the  spiritual  life.  For,  in  revealing  all  that  has 
been  unfolded  of  independent  spiritual  life,  it 
shows  what  possibilities  our  life  contains  of 


INTRODUCTION  25 

being  raised  to  a  higher  inward  level,  and  also 
what  oppositions  arise  in  this  connection  and 
have  to  be  overcome  in  some  way  or  other. 
It  goes  on  to  exhibit  the  conditions  and  the 
demands  of  spiritual  creative  effort,  and  the 
presuppositions  and  environment  from  which 
special  kinds  of  spiritual  life  have  sprung.  It 
shows  the  dominating  facts  both  within  and 
as  opposed  to  the  spiritual  life,  and  also  the 
directions  in  which  the  movement  progresses. 
It  can  further  operate  to  free  our  work  from 
all  that  is  casual  and  temporary,  and  to  bring 
it  into  line  with  the  necessary  course  of  spiritual 
life  so  far  as  it  has  been  revealed  in  the  history 
of  the  world.  Our  efforts  will  not  only  acquire 
thereby  more  breadth  and  freedom,  but  may 
also  gain  a  stronger  and  securer  position 
through  the  recognition  of  the  great  guiding 
lines  of  the  general  movement  of  history. 
Naturally  all  this  can  only  take  place  according 
to  the  capacity  of  the  individual  life  on  which 
the  task  is  laid  of  gaining  an  inner  mastery 
over  the  materials  provided  by  history.  For 


26  THE   LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

without  such  individual  exertion  history  cannot 
impart  or  teach  anything:  the  contents  of 
history  must  first  be  awakened  and  revivified 
by  our  own  work  before  they  can  be  of  any 
significance  or  use  to  our  own  life.  If  we 
thus  address  ourselves  to  the  spiritual  content, 
the  revivifying  of  the  general  movement  of 
history  takes  the  form  of  a  comparative  survey 
of  the  spiritual  possessions  which  we  have 
hitherto  acquired,  and  a  summons  to  develop 
and  secure  these  possessions  against  the  in- 
fluences and  accidents  of  the  moment.  We 
need  not  waste  any  time  in  proving  that  the 
present,  with  its  sharp  oppositions,  its  violent 
cleavage,  and  ominous  levelling  down  of  life, 
and  its  want  of  any  ruling  aim,  stands  in 
particularly  urgent  need  of  being  supplemented 
and  developed  in  the  way  we  have  sketched. 
Historical  study  must  press  on  with  particular 
insistence  to  fresh  philosophical  work,  to  a 
creative  activity  which  will  transform  phil- 
osophy by  clearly  proving  the  untenability 
of  the  present  spiritual  state  and  the  necessity 


INTRODUCTION  27 

of  a  new  type  of  culture.  But  in  this  respect 
the  spiritual  requirements  which  are  involved, 
not  so  much  in  the  time  as  in  the  general 
position  in  world  history,  are  bound  to  set 
philosophy  definite  tasks  and  point  it  in 
definite  directions. 

A  treatment  of  history  like  this,  which  com- 
bines the  tracing  out  of  the  rise  and  growth  of 
spiritual  life  within  the  sphere  of  humanity  with 
the  search  for  a  standpoint  for  philosophical 
work,  can  be  undertaken  in  different  ways. 
We  desire  to  undertake  it  in  such  a  way  as 
to  emphasize  some  of  the  leading  lines  of 
development,  to  exhibit  the  problems  which 
there  await  us,  and  to  show  the  movements, 
experiences,  and  revelations  of  life  which  have 
resulted  from  them.  It  may  seem  that  out- 
wardly we  are  giving  ourselves  up  entirely  to 
history,  but  our  aim  is  always  directed  towards 
philosophy.  What  history  has  brought  us  is 
not  reckoned  as  merely  past,  but  we  try  to 
make  it  present  to  us  as  living,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  gain  from  it  points  of  support 


28  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

both  for  the  guidance  of  spiritual  life  and  for 
philosophy.  In  these  leading  lines  we  shall 
find  common  features,  in  fact  an  inner  con- 
nection will  be  evident  through  all  the  diver- 
sity ;  but  a  more  exact  estimation  of  this  is  to 
be  made  at  the  end.  We  thus  arrange  our 
sections  so  that  we  progress  gradually  from 
general  sketches  to  a  more  definite  content, 
and  so  allow  the  character  and  the  demands 
of  the  whole  to  become  continually  more 
apparent.  Let  us  then  treat  in  succession  the 
problems  of  unity  and  multiplicity,  of  rest  and 
movement,  of  the  outer  and  the  inner  worlds, 
and  finally  the  problem  of  truth  and  the  pro- 
blem of  happiness.  As  far  as  material  is  con- 
cerned, let  us  limit  our  investigation  to  tracing 
out  the  movement  from  the  rise  of  Greek 
civilization  to  the  present  day.  This  is  not 
merely  because  it  lies  nearest  to  us  externally, 
but  also  because  no  other  historical  complex 
contains  so  much  spiritual  movement  or  has 
produced  such  an  abundance  of  life  and,  amid 
violent  metamorphoses,  has  passed  through  so 


INTRODUCTION  29 

many  experiences.  But  this  is  the  point,  above 
all,  for  philosophical  contemplation.  If  we  go 
through  history  in  this  way  we  do  not  lose 
ourselves  in  an  incalculable  vastness,  but,  with 
all  the  abundance  of  material,  we  are  all  the 
time  at  home.  It  is  a  kind  of  introspection, 
not  so  much  of  the  individual  as  of  the  whole, 
which  we  are  here  striving  after,  and  intro- 
spection is  to-day,  as  at  all  times,  the  best 
approach  to  philosophy. 


CHAPTER  1 

UNITY  AND  MULTIPLICITY 

NATURE,  as  it  lies  open  to  our  view,  displays 
a  mere  juxtaposition  of  elements,  with  no  inner 
connection.  On  the  natural  level  life  does  not 
get  beyond  the  stage  of  mere  correlations. 
But  on  the  other  hand,  wherever  spiritual  life 
makes  itself  felt  we  find  the  desire  to  sur- 
mount the  stage  of  mere  juxtaposition,  to 
establish  an  inner  connection,  and,  in  fact,  to 
systematize  the  whole  of  life.  All  the  main 
directions  in  which  our  spiritual  work  finds 
its  outlet  involve  the  effort  to  overcome  an 
opposition  and  the  demand  for  some  sort  of 
unification.  Thus  the  struggle  for  truth  seeks 
to  overcome  the  separation  between  men  and 
things,  between  subject  and  object,  between 

30 


UNITY   AND  MULTIPLICITY  31 

thought  and  existence.  With  the  good,  in 
the  narrower  sense  of  the  word,  it  is  a  case 
of  getting  free  from  the  pettiness  of  the  ego, 
breaking  through  the  original  narrowness,  and 
attaining  inner  solidarity.  Beauty  too  seeks 
to  overcome  an  opposition  in  endeavouring  to 
make  the  external  conform  completely  to  its 
own  internal  standards.  But  just  as  spiritual 
life  exercises  a  unifying  influence  in  an  ex- 
ternal environment,  so  too,  in  itself,  it  strives 
to  assume  the  form  of  a  coherent  whole  and 
gives  rise  to  an  inner  solidarity  of  work.  It 
is  a  matter  not  for  the  individual  man,  but 
for  the  whole  race ;  it  strives  to  attain  not 
merely  individual  truths  but  a  realm  of 
truth,  which  envelops  and  holds  together 
the  individuals,  and  which,  indeed,  lays  claim 
to  a  validity  of  its  own,  independent  of  man- 
kind. It  is  very  much  the  same  with  the 
good  and  the  beautiful ;  however  much  con- 
troversy and  dissension  may  prevail  in  this 
connection,  even  the  controversy  would  be 
incomprehensible  without  the  belief  in  a 


32  THE   LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

common  truth  and  without  the  impelling 
power  of  this  truth. 

But  though  the  striving  for  unity  is  an 
incontestable  and  fundamental  impulse  of  all 
spiritual  life,  it  yet  involves  a  difficult  pro- 
blem, which  cannot  be  attacked  by  the  indivi- 
dual but  only  by  the  age-long  toil  of  humanity. 
For  the  question  is,  how  the  unification  can 
be  attained,  and  what  form  the  whole  must 
assume  in  order  to  take  up  the  diversity  into 
itself  and  overcome  the  oppositions.  Many 
different  attempts  and  much  unrest  will  meet 
the  eyes  of  him  who  makes  a  spiritual  pilgrim- 
age through  the  centuries.  In  accordance 
with  our  plan  we  begin  with  the  life  of  the 
Greeks. 

From  the  very  beginning  the  philosophy  of 
the  Greeks  shows  the  impulse  towards  unity. 
Their  first  thinkers,  the  sages  of  Ionia,  turn  at 
once  to  the  search  for  a  single  fundamental 
substance,  and  the  Pythagoreans  co-ordinate 
the  wealth  of  phenomena  into  a  coherent 
universe,  a  cosmos.  Even  the  exclusiveness 


UNITY  AND  MULTIPLICITY  33 

of  a  unitary  being  finds  early  defenders  in  the 
Eleatics,  and  they  do  not  shrink  from  reduc- 
ing multiplicity  to  mere  appearance.  But 
Greek  life  clings  too  closely  to  the  rich 
diversity  of  reality  to  be  able  to  give  it  up 
completely:  hence  the  problem  assumes  the 
form  of  discovering  a  definite  relation  between 
unity  and  multiplicity,  a  firm  co-ordination  of 
the  diversity  of  things.  Its  solution  is  reached 
in  close  connection  with  movements  that  take 
place  in  the  general  life  of  the  time,  in  contact 
of  the  work  of  thought  with  the  state  of 
political  and  social  development.  As  usually 
happens,  the  beginnings  of  this  development 
show  us  individuals  in  strict  subjection,  in 
complete  dependence  on  the  order  and  custom 
of  the  community,  under  the  yoke  of  autho- 
rity and  tradition,  which  is  not  yet  felt  as 
oppressive.  But  gradually  the  individual  gains 
in  power,  in  freedom  of  movement,  in  inde- 
pendence ;  he  begins  to  inquire  into  the  right 
and  reason  of  the  systems  in  which  he  finds 
himself;  he  holds  himself  continually  more 


34  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

aloof  from  them,  and  feels  that  he  is  personally 
responsible  for  his  own  life.  But  then  the 
danger  at  once  arises  that  the  subject  may 
break  up  all  systems,  make  himself  the 
measure  of  all  things,  and,  as  a  logical  con- 
sequence, recognize  the  validity  of  no  ends 
except  those  that  further  his  own  well-being. 
This  gives  rise  to  the  most  dangerous  crisis, 
and  life  appears  likely  to  suffer  a  complete 
dissolution.  The  Sophists  with  their  subjec- 
tivism make  this  very  evident.  In  such  a 
convulsion  nothing  can  be  of  any  assistance 
except  man's  own  spiritual  work :  it  is  this 
alone  which  can  attempt  to  build  up  from 
within  the  coherent  system  which  the  visible 
world  no  longer  affords,  and  what  it  here 
undertook  for  the  first  time  is  in  reality  a 
problem  of  a  lasting  nature  which  our  own 
day  too  must  face.  With  the  Greeks  it  was 
pre-eminently  philosophy  which  took  upon 
itself  this  problem.  A  solution  was  sought 
by  affirming  the  existence  of  a  world  of 
thought  raised  above  all  human  circumstances 


UNITY   AND   MULTIPLICITY  85 

and  opinions  and  firmly  established  over  against 
them.  Plato's  doctrine  of  Ideas  brings  the 
power  of  genius  to  the  execution  of  this  task, 
and  for  him  the  constituents  of  that  world 
more  nearly  acquire  the  character  of  forms 
endowed  with  fulness  of  life.  These  forms 
with  all  their  diversity  unite  to  form  a  whole  ; 
the  work  of  this  whole,  moreover,  is  to  give 
movement  and  elevation  to  human  existence  ; 
it  supplies  it  with  a  deeper  foundation  and  the 
power  of  counteracting  the  distraction  from 
whiph  it  previously  suffered.  On  the  basis 
of  scientific  work  there  thus  arises  an  artistic 
ordering  of  life  which  brings  about  a  peculiar 
combination  of  unity  and  multiplicity.  The 
thought  of  the  One  takes  precedence,  but  the 
Many  are  not  in  the  least  sacrificed,  though 
each  part  must  seek  its  place  and  its  task  within 
the  whole  in  order  to  carry  out  its  special  work 
in  this  position.  But  it  cannot  do  this  without 
recognizing  limits  and  overcoming  the  crude 
impulses  of  nature,  and  thus  it  is  ennobled  and, 
in  fact,  spiritualized  by  the  whole.  Thus  life 


36  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

is  organized  from  top  to  bottom,  marked  off 
into  stages,  made  symmetrical  and  harmonious, 
and  everything  which  is  merely  natural  is 
brought  under  the  dominion  of  the  spirit. 

A  movement  of  this  kind  affects  human 
endeavour  in  all  directions  and  gives  it  a 
peculiar  character.  On  this  view  thought  is 
not  a  critical  sifting  and  analysing,  a  pressing 
forward  to  the  most  minute  elements,  but  it  is 
rather  a  comprehensive  survey  of  the  diversity 
of  things,  and  a  disentangling  of  the  funda- 
mental structure  of  the  universe  from  the 
chaos  which  it  presents  at  first  sight.  Its 
main  movement  is  from  the  whole  to  the 
parts,  and  it  is  especially  the  task  of  philoso- 
phical knowledge  to  put  everything  that  exists 
and  everything  that  happens  in  its  proper 
place,  and  to  understand  it  from  what  it  does 
for  the  whole.  And  the  psychic  life  of  man 
has  also  a  general  work  to  perform,  which 
includes  its  individual  parts  and  stages.  It  is 
of  special  importance  in  the  human  com- 
munity to  counteract  the  isolation  of  in- 


UNITY  AND  MULTIPLICITY  37 

dividuals,  with  their  caprice  and  selfishness. 
The  thought  arises  of  a  state  whose  structure 
is  based  on  knowledge  and  seeks  to  enforce 
its  own  realization.  An  essentially  elevating 
effect  is  expected  from  the  direction  of  the 
whole  towards  spiritual  goods  and  from  the 
division  and  organization  of  work  by  a  grada- 
tion of  classes.  Even  the  severest  conse- 
quences, such  as  the  extraordinary  communism 
of  the  higher  classes,  are  not  shirked  if  they 
seem  to  be  necessary  in  order  to  strike  at  the 
root  of  egoism.  But  all  this  surrender  to  the 
whole  does  not  mean  any  complete  sacrifice  of 
the  individuals,  for  in  this  arrangement  they 
satisfy  their  own  nature  as  well,  and  thereby 
attain  to  complete  happiness. 

Aristotle's  scheme  of  life  is  closely  related 
to  Plato's,  but  still  the  modifications  which  he 
introduced  are  significant.  Less  importance 
is  attached  to  the  part  played  by  art,  and  the 
power  of  co-ordination  which  results  from 
taking  the  point  of  view  of  art  is  less  em- 
phasized, though  it  is  not  entirely  neglected, 

S3  8  72 


38  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  classifying  and 
organizing  power  of  thought  is  given  the 
widest  scope,  and  it  is  especially  the  conception 
of  the  unfolding  of  life,  of  existence  becoming 
fully  active,  that  provides  the  guiding  lines 
for  thought.  It  is  here  in  particular  that 
human  activity  displays  a  systematic  char- 
acter :  the  world,  both  in  general  and  in  detail, 
is  regarded  under  the  governing  conception  of 
an  articulated  whole,  an  organic  unity  of  life. 
Aristotle  is  particularly  successful  in  enforcing 
the  idea  that  in  the  case  of  an  organic  living 
being  a  large  number  of  organs  and  functions 
is  subordinated  to  a  comprehensive  unity  of 
life,  and  that  it  is  only  from  this  point  of 
view,  by  help  of  the  idea  of  an  end,  that 
they  can  be  understood.  This  conception 
of  an  organism  is  finally  transferred  to  the 
whole  universe  ;  this  too  forms  a  complete 
and  rounded  unity  which  tolerates  nothing 
"episodic."1  Still  more  than  in  the  case  of 


Cf.    Aristotle,    Met.    1090b    19,    OVK    eoi/ce   S'    17 

oixra  e/c  TWV  </>atvoyui€Vcav  wcrTrep  fj.o^0rjpa  TpaytaSia. 


UNITY   AND  MULTIPLICITY  39 

Plato  we  thus  find  one  fundamental  conviction 
extending  over  all  departments.  Thinking 
becomes  the  logical  organization  of  the  whole 
of  reality,  and,  while  prepared  to  recognize  all 
particularity,  it  never  allows  the  individual 
to  become  separated  from  the  whole.  Simple 
and  fundamental  thoughts  govern  all  depart- 
ments, and  though  they  may  appear  to  be 
disparate  they  are  still  kept  together  by  the 
bond  of  analogy.  Psychic  life,  too,  is  re- 
quired to  develop  every  faculty,  but  there 
must  be  an  activity  of  the  whole  which  in- 
cludes all  particular  activities  and  measures 
them  by  its  own  standards.  The  superiority 
of  the  whole  acquires  particular  force  and 
vividness  when  we  come  to  the  idea  of  the 
state.  Just  as  each  member  can  only  live 
and  work  in  connection  with  the  whole 
organism,  man  can  only  be  fully  man  in  the 
community.  And  thus  it  can  be  maintained 
that  the  state  is  prior  to  the  individual. 
But  at  the  same  time  the  utmost  differentia- 
tion is  desired  within  the  state,  and  the 


40  THE   LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

heart  and  soul  of  every  man  is  called  upon 
to  co-operate. 

The  combined  work  of  both  thinkers  has 
held  up  to  life  a  stable  and  coherent  system, 
and  satisfied  in  a  characteristic  way  the  desire 
for  unity.  Unification  is  attained  by  the 
alliance  of  clear  thought  with  the  creative 
activity  of  art.  The  main  achievement  of 
this  philosophy  is  its  vigorous  and  thorough 
organization  of  the  whole  range  of  existence ; 
it  leaves  nothing  outside  but  takes  up  every- 
thing from  the  greatest  to  the  least,  gives  it 
definite  shape,  and  quickens  and  ennobles  it. 
Man  here  displays  his  capacity  of  forming  a 
whole  in  thought,  retaining  within  this  whole 
a  rich  diversity  of  elements,  and  making  it  a 
centre  from  which  to  bring  the  whole  range 
of  reality  into  an  inwardly  coherent  system. 
The  endeavour  to  attain  unity  in  this  manner 
has  persisted  throughout  the  whole  course  of 
history ;  it  has  often  entered  upon  new  spheres 
of  activity  with  rejuvenated  powers,  and  seems 
to  be  indispensable  for  the  spiritual  appro- 


UNITY   AND  MULTIPLICITY  41 

priation  of  the  breadth  and  fulness  of  existence. 
But  as  a  leading  synthesis  of  life,  this  philo- 
sophy had  presuppositions  which  met  with  a 
continually  increasing  opposition.  Such  a 
synthesis  not  only  needs  pre-eminent  spiritual 
power  to  carry  it  out,  but  it  also  presupposes 
as  objectively  existing  a  tendency  on  the  part 
of  things  towards  union,  an  inner  harmony  of 
reality,  which  the  further  movement  of  life 
made  continually  more  uncertain.  In  the 
first  place,  this  synthesis  of  life  did  not  retain 
its  leading  position  in  the  following  centuries. 
When  the  separation  between  philosophy  and 
the  particular  sciences  becomes  wider,  and  the 
former  comes  to  be  regarded  predominantly  as 
wisdom  in  the  conduct  of  life,  we  no  longer 
find  simple  fundamental  thoughts  exercising 
control  over  the  whole  range  of  reality.  In- 
dividuals are  still  less  inclined  to  submit  to 
the  constraint  which  is  commended  by  Plato 
and  Aristotle.  As  the  break-up  of  the  old 
systematizations  of  life  becomes  increasingly 
apparent,  men  are  more  and  more  concerned 


42  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

to  ensure  that  the  individual  shall  stand  firm 
on  his  own  basis  and  be  independent  of  all 
environment.  Philosophy  is  particularly  suc- 
cessful in  this  aim  when  it  occupies  man  with 
the  thought  of  the  Universe,  and  promises  him 
victory  over  every  obstacle  if  he  realizes 
strongly  the  presence  of  the  Universal  Reason. 
The  complete  emancipation  of  the  individual 
finds  its  classical  expression  particularly  in  the 
doctrine  of  the  Stoics :  it  is  here  that  there 
arises  the  conception  of  a  personality  superior 
to  the  world,  and  participation  in  the  universal 
thought  lends  dignity  and  value  to  human 
existence.  Another  result  is  that  all  men 
enter  into  an  invisible  connection,  they  become 
conscious  of  an  inner  relationship,  a  solidarity 
embracing  all  that  is  human. 

But  if  men  are  thrown  on  their  own 
resources  to  grasp  and  realize  the  universal 
thought,  it  is  only  heroic  individuals  of 
original  force  who  will  succeed.  But  such 
men  are  scarce  at  all  times,  and  this  solution 
became  especially  unsatisfactory  in  proper- 


UNITY   AND   MULTIPLICITY  43 

tion  as  the  approaching  break-up  of  the 
ancient  world  increased  the  feeling  of  in- 
security, of  weakness,  and  of  need.  The  per- 
plexities of  life  finally  appear  too  great  for 
man  to  meet  out  of  his  own  resources.  This 
gives  rise  to  a  continually  increasing  craving 
after  religion,  and  finally  to  a  movement  in 
the  direction  of  religion.  Hence  the  endeavour 
after  unity  now  takes  on  a  religious  rather 
than  an  artistic  character.  Unity  is  now 
sought  not  so  much  by  producing  an  all- 
embracing  co-ordination  of  the  diversity  of 
things,  as  by  recourse  to  an  existence  which 
is  raised  above  all  multiplicity  and  forms  its 
ground.  But  although  with  the  Greeks 
multiplicity  was  never  degraded  to  mere 
appearance,  as  it  was  with  the  Indians,  and 
though  for  this  reason  the  Greeks  never 
embraced  an  exclusive  monotheism,  yet  they 
came  more  and  more  to  attach  significance 
to  that  which  is  individual  only  so  far  as  it 
gives  expression  to  the  unity  of  the  universe. 
This  gives  to  life  a  powerful  stimulus  and 


44  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

impetus,  but  it  involves  the  loss  of  the 
organizing  influence  which  was  exercised  by 
the  older  creative  activity.  It  was  Plotinus 
in  particular  who  gave  a  philosophical  shape 
to  the  new  tendency,  and  in  this  connection 
philosophy  takes  a  quite  new  direction.  It 
was  formerly  the  function  of  religion  to 
minister  to  the  happiness  and  especially  the 
tranquillity  of  man ;  it  was  a  mere  means  to 
his  well-being  ;  but  now  the  centre  of  gravity 
is  transferred  from  individuals  to  the  universe, 
and  it  is  only  from  the  universe  that  the 
individual  receives  life  and  being.  We  find 
here  a  single  life  which  sustains  and  pervades 
the  whole  range  of  reality  and  exhibits  it  as 
its  own  development.  All  the  diversity  of 
things  is  dependent  on  this  unitary  life,  and 
everything  tends  to  return  to  it.  Many 
metaphors  are  employed  in  the  attempt  to 
show  how  the  One  can  give  rise  to  the  rich 
diversity  of  the  world  without  losing  itself 
anywhere  or  striving  to  transcend  itself.  It 
resembles  a  light  which  sends  forth  its  rays 


UNITY  AND   MULTIPLICITY  45 

far  and  wide  without  diminishing  its  own 
brightness  ;  it  is  like  the  fountain  from  which 
all  things  proceed  but  which  itself  continues 
to  flow  inexhaustibly ;  or  it  resembles  the  root 
of  a  tree  which  shoots  up  above  the  ground, 
but  which  is  not  merged  into  its  own  un- 
folding. In  these  modes  of  connection  the 
core  of  spiritual  life  and  also  of  philosophy 
consists  entirely  in  the  search  for  unity  and 
the  apprehension  of  it.  All  the  different 
domains  of  life  and  philosophy  are  only 
particular  ways  of  reaching  unity.  But  since 
the  final  unity  lies  beyond  all  special  forms 
and  all  concepts,  it  follows  that  thought,  even 
when  its  powers  are  strained  to  the  utmost, 
is  no  longer  equal  to  the  claim  which  is  made 
upon  it.  It  is  only  immediate  apprehension 
which  can  put  us  in  possession  of  this  unity. 
Thought  passes  into  a  formless  feeling,  a  sub- 
jective mood  which  cannot  be  expressed  in 
words,  in  which  it  desires  nothing  but  unity. 
By  this  process  thought  brings  about  its  own 
destruction  as  pure  thought,  but  this  violent 


46  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

convulsion  results  in  feeling  becoming  inde- 
pendent, and  there  arises  a  new  type  of 
psychical  experience  which  is  both  self-con- 
tained and  self-sufficing. 

In  the  detailed  carrying  out  of  this  tendency 
life  is  either  shaped  on  the  model  of  a  hierarchy 
or  it  receives  a  mystical  turn.  The  former 
scheme  leaves  the  diversity  of  things,  but 
introduces  a  fixed  order  into  it  by  recognizing 
throughout  a  continuous  chain  of  life.  For 
Spiritual  Life  proceeds  from  the  original  unity 
as  the  first  stage,  and  on  this  there  depend 
the  further  stages  of  Soul  and  of  Nature. 
Each  in  its  place  receives  life  from  the  order 
of  being  immediately  above  it,  and  conveys  it 
from  itself  to  that  which  is  below  it.  Through 
a  connection  of  this  kind,  even  that  which 
might  seem  to  be  imperfect  as  far  as  itself  is 
concerned  gains  a  certain  value.  It  is  only 
through  a  misapprehension  of  this  connection 
that  anyone  can  imagine  that  he  has  discovered 
evil  in  the  world,  since  what  seems  to  be  evil 
is  in  reality  only  a  lesser  good.  This  concep- 


UNITY   AND   MULTIPLICITY  47 

tion  of  gradation  and  the  downward  com- 
munication of  life  was  destined  to  attain  to 
great  influence  in  the  domain  of  Christianity. 

Mysticism,  on  the  contrary,  puts  the 
individual  into  immediate  relationship  with 
the  infinite  life,  and  aspires  to  steep  him  in 
this  life  to  such  an  extent  that  it  becomes 
his  own.  By  getting  rid  of  everything  that 
makes  for  separation  and  distinction,  by  casting 
off  the  chains  of  what  men  call  happiness,  and 
by  freeing  himself  from  all  the  narrowness 
and  insufficiency  of  the  mere  unit,  the  mystic 
believes  that  in  extinction  itself  he  gains  an 
incomparably  higher  life  and  genuine  blessed- 
ness. It  is  here  that  we  first  recognize  clearly 
the  power  which  the  thought  of  a  total 
surrender  of  the  ego  and  of  absorption  into 
an  infinite  life  can  exercise  over  the  human 
soul.  The  fact  that  man  can  completely 
renounce  the  merely  human  and  can  give  up 
the  whole  wealth  of  reality  without  thereby 
falling  into  the  void,  seems  to  assure  him  of 
his  capacity  for  rising  superior  to  the  world, 


48  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

and  to  bring  him  into  close  connection  with 
the  ultimate  depths  of  the  universe.  Hence 
he  seems  to  himself  to  be  nowhere  greater 
than  in  such  complete  surrender  of  his  separate- 
ness.  But  the  danger  of  this  movement,  as 
well  as  its  greatness,  consists  just  in  this  con- 
centration of  life  on  one  point.  It  is,  of  course, 
this  concentration  which  has  given  rise  to  the 
thought  of  a  purely  internal  world,  and  the 
recognition  of  the  immediate  presence  of 
infinite  life  in  the  individual  soul  has  revealed 
a  refuge  which  is  open  at  all  times.  But  at 
the  same  time  the  stripping  off  of  all  particu- 
larity forces  life  to  give  up  all  detailed  content 
and  all  penetration  and  organization  of  reality. 
But  even  when  this  loss  is  recognized,  this 
mode  of  thought  remains  an  indispensable 
element  in  all  development  of  independent 
spirituality.  It  not  only  persists  throughout 
the  middle  ages,  but  comes  into  prominence 
in  modern  times  in  new  shapes,  and  shows 
that  it  is  still  powerful  even  at  the  present 
day.  If  we  give  up  the  immediate  presence 


UNITY   AND   MULTIPLICITY  49 

of  infinite  being  in  the  soul,  the  life  of  the 
soul  must  inevitably  and  immediately  lose  in 
depth  and  spontaneity. 

The  relation  of  Christianity  to  the  problem 
of  unity  and  multiplicity  is  by  no  means  simple. 
Different,  and  in  fact  opposite,  tendencies  are 
engaged  in  conflict  against  one  another,  and 
though  this  may  give  rise  to  much  confusion 
and  error,  it  also  produces  much  movement 
and  progress  in  life.  The  mere  fact  that 
Christianity  is  distinctively  and  characteristic- 
ally an  ethical  religion,  has  diverse  tendencies. 
Morality  has  its  end  in  action,  and  therefore 
demands  both  self-activity  and  self-sufficiency 
on  the  part  of  the  individual ;  but  religion  gains 
power  only  where  man  is  conscious  of  his 
weakness  and  seeks  help  from  higher  powers. 
The  ethical  element  prevails  chiefly  in  the 
conception  of  God,  which  is  essentially  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  Greek  world.  For  Greek 
thought  the  divine  is  closely  bound  up  and 

intimately   united   with    the    totality    of   the 

4 


50  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

world ;  and  though,  later  on,  it  was  regarded 
as  raised  above  all  sensible  existence,  it  never 
detaches  itself  from  the  world  as  an  inde- 
pendent power,  and  does  not  take  up  an  inde- 
pendent stand  over  against  it.  Hence  its 
activity  seems  to  be  not  so  much  a  free  action 
as  a  process  of  nature,  which  is  only  raised  to 
the  spiritual  level.  It  is  represented  as  a 
flowing  out,  a  shining  forth,  a  going  forth,  etc. : 
in  every  case  as  something  which  happens 
from  necessity. 

Christianity,  on  the  contrary,  in  close  con- 
nection with  later  Judaism,  regards  God  as 
a  Spirituality  who  transcends  the  world  and 
is  self -existing  and  self-sufficing.  He  is 
thought  of  as  free  in  His  action,  and  His 
self-manifestation  is  regarded  as  spirit  coming 
into  touch  with  spirit.  There  is  no  doubt  that, 
especially  in  popular  thought,  this  may  give 
rise  to  the  danger  of  degrading  God  to  the 
level  of  human  ideas  and  interests,  the  danger 
of  anthropomorphism.  But  however  far  this 
may  have  spread,  it  is  not  the  whole  of  the 


UNITY  AND   MULTIPLICITY  51 

matter.  All  the  mistakes  that  have  been  made 
ought  not  to  prevent  us  from  recognizing  that 
it  was  in  Christianity  that  the  movement 
towards  a  self-existent  and  active  Spirituality 
was  first  carried  out  on  any  large  scale, 
and  that  it  was  religion,  in  the  ethical  form 
which  it  assumes  in  Christianity,  that  first  led 
to  the  recognition  of  such  a  Being.  To  the 
change  in  the  conception  of  the  divine  Being 
there  corresponds  a  new  relation  of  man  to 
Him.  The  Greek  sought  to  draw  near  to  the 
Deity  on  the  heights  of  philosophy,  by  pushing 
knowledge  to  its  utmost  limits.  He  sought 
complete  union  with  the  Divine ;  but  when  this 
is  attained,  life  does  not  return  to  its  starting- 
point  to  make  something  newer  and  higher 
out  of  it.  But  this  is  what  takes  place  in 
Christianity,  because  the  relation  to  the  Deity 
opens  up  new  depths  of  life  in  the  individual, 
and  makes  him,  even  in  his  particularity,  an 
object  of  the  divine  love  and  care.  The  indi- 
vidual, who  is  accustomed  to  be  treated  with 
such  indifference  by  nature  and  society,  gains 


52  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

an  infinite  worth  from  such  a  relationship,  and 
ventures  to  regard  himself  as  an  end  in  him- 
self, but  at  the  same  time  he  finds  that  he  has 
a  task  which  takes  precedence  of  any  general 
extension  of  his  activity.  This  holds  good  for 
all  men  without  distinction :  it  is  not  measured 
and  limited  by  any  outward  results  that  have 
been  achieved,  but  depends  on  the  general 
nature  and  bent  of  the  soul,  on  the  active 
moral  force  which  it  shows.  This  forms  a 
great  contrast  to  Greek  thought,  which  could 
not  make  union  with  the  transcendental 
unity  a  matter  of  philosophical  knowledge 
without  encountering  great  differences  between 
one  man  and  another,  and  finding  that  only  a 
few  were  called  to  the  full  knowledge  of  God. 
The  problem  of  recruiting  all  men  for  the 
spiritual  task  is  one  which,  in  the  province  of 
civilization  to  which  we  belong,  first  gained 
recognition  by  the  agency  of  Christianity,  and, 
though  the  task  contains  enormous  complexities, 
in  particular,  the  danger  lest  spiritual  work 
should  be  subordinated  to  the  power  of  the 


UNITY  AND   MULTIPLICITY  53 

merely  human,  once  having  been  recognized 
and  acknowledged  it  can  never  again  be  put 
into  the  background.  The  fact,  too,  that  in 
Christian  thought,  which  is  determined  by 
ethical  considerations,  the  Greek  ideal  of  justice 
gives  way  to  the  ideal  of  love,  tends  also  to 
the  exaltation  of  the  individual  in  general  and 
x)f  each  separate  individual  in  particular.  If, 
on  the  one  hand,  outward  achievements  decided 
the  place  of  the  individual  in  the  whole,  that 
which  was  mea"n  and  feeble  could  never  receive 
any  sort  of  recognition.  But  on  the  other 
hand  it  does  gain  a  certain  value  if  every  man 
finds  that  the  task  he  has  to  face  is  inde- 
pendent of  external  conditions,  and  if  infinite 
love  embraces  all,  the  least  as  well  as  the 
greatest,  in  an  equal  degree. 

This  all  leads  to  a  considerable  increase 
in  the  significance  of  the  individual  and  his 
decisions.  At  the  same  time  the  coherence  of 
things  and  the  connection  of  the  individual 
with  it  is  not  surrendered,  but  rather  there 
is  a  general  tendency  to  increase  this  also. 


54  THE  LIFE  OF  THE  SPIRIT 

Christianity  does  not  exhaust  the  relationship 
to  the  Deity  in  single  points  of  connection 
and  isolated  achievements,  but  desires  that  this 
relationship  should  lead  to  an  entire  change  of 
soul;  and  it  is  for  this  very  reason  that  the 
individual  cannot  force  himself  to  take  the 
decisive  step,  but  must  await  the  coming  of  a 
new  life  from  a  source  of  power  and  grace 
which  is  above  him.  A  kingdom  of  God 
must  reveal  itself  to  him,  and  must  even 
inspire  the  desire  to  enter  it.  Great  world 
events  must  happen  in  order  that  a  change 
may  take  place  at  one  point,  or,  as  Hegel 
expresses  it  in  his  own  language,  "the  very 
fact  that  the  opposition  is  implicitly  done 
away  with  constitutes  the  condition,  the 
presupposition,  the  possibility  of  the  sub- 
ject's ability  to  do  away  with  it  actually."1 
Withal,  it  is  an  important  fact  that  the 
coherent  system  with  which  the  individual 

1  Hegel,  Werke,  2e  Aufl.  xii.  277.  Hegel,  lectures  on  the 
Philosophy  of  Religion,  translated  by  E.  B.  Spiers  and 
J.  B.  Sanderson,  iii.  67. 


UNITY  AND  MULTIPLICITY  55 

comes  into  connection  does  not  remain 
purely  of  an  invisible  kind  but  strives  to 
embody  itself  in  a  visible  form,  not  only  in 
its  later  stages  but  from  the  very  beginning ; 
and  that  there  is  an  early  and  persistent 
tendency  to  form  a  church.  This  brought  in 
its  train  an  inevitable  dependency  not  merely 
on  divine  truth  but  also  on  human  conditions. 
The  more  firmly  the  visible  order  was  estab- 
lished, and  the  closer  it  linked  the  invisible 
order  to  itself,  the  greater  was  the  loss  which 
the  freedom  of  the  individual  was  bound  to 
undergo;  every  diminution  of  freedom,  how- 
ever, endangered  the  ethical  character  of 
Christianity. 

Thus  Christianity  contained  difficult  contra- 
dictions, just  like  every  other  spiritual  move- 
ment which  has  had  a  great  part  to  play  on 
the  stage  of  humanity.  These  contradictions 
needed  imperatively  to  be  reconciled  in  some 
way  or  other,  but  the  manner  of  reconciliation 
was  principally  determined  by  the  nature  of 
the  period  within  which  it  had  to  be  accom- 


56  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

plished.  It  was  the  time  at  which  the 
definitive  consolidation  of  Christianity  was 
established,  the  last  epoch  of  antiquity,  a 
period  when  the  will  to  live  was  greatly 
weakened,  when  men  were  becoming  uncertain 
of  themselves,  and  all  the  old  connections  were 
broken  up.  The  old  epoch  was  at  an  end, 
and  a  new  one  had  not  yet  dawned.  Hence 
men's  first  desire  was  to  reach  a  safe  harbour 
of  refuge:  they  wished  to  be  thoroughly 
assured  of  deliverance,  and  to  be  relieved  as 
far  as  possible  from  all  private  responsibility. 
The  wish  was  all  the  stronger  owing  to  the 
fact  that  men's  minds  had  been  so  overawed 
by  gloomy  experiences  that  the  thought  of 
eternal  life  became  for  them,  above  all  else,  a 
dread  of  eternal  punishment.  This  drove  them 
to  submit  willingly  to  a  superior  authority, 
and  also  led  to  truth  being  put  in  as  popular 
a  form  as  possible.  In  this  difficult  situation 
Christianity  did  indeed  become  a  refuge  for 
mankind  ;  but  it  could  not  become  so  without 
suffering  the  consequences  of  this  position  and 


UNITY   AND   MULTIPLICITY  57 

being  driven  in  a  very  problematical  direction. 
The  religious  aspect  now  pushed  the  ethical 
into  the  background,  and  immediately  devel- 
oped a  strong  tendency  towards  the  visible 
and  sensuous.  Hence  it  came  about  that  the 
Church  as  a  visible  order  absorbed  Christianity 
more  and  more  into  itself,  that  it  was  thought 
to  have  at  its  disposal  the  treasure  of  divine 
grace,  and  was  raised  to  a  position  of  incon- 
testable authority  over  the  individual.  At 
the  same  time  the  idea  of  organization — and 
of  an  organization  which  is  both  stable  and 
palpable — becomes  the  centre  of  spiritual  life 
and  spiritual  work.  However  much  com- 
plexity and  difficulty  this  tendency  has  brought 
with  it,  we  must  not  fail  to  recognize  its 
grandeur.  Nowhere  else  in  the  whole  course 
of  history  has  the  attempt  been  made  to  bring 
the  whole  of  mankind  into  close  connection 
with  one  another  on  the  ground  of  common 
convictions,  and  thus  to  bind  them  together 
not  by  external  constraint  but  by  inner  com- 
munion. Nothing  in  the  human  shape  is  left 


58  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

outside  the  spiritual  order,  or  excluded  from  its 
influence.  But  at  the  same  time  the  spiritual 
order  is  drawn  down  deep  into  that  which  is 
human,  and  thereby  strongly  influenced ;  its 
special  shape  is  essentially  determined  by  the 
needs  of  man,  or  by  the  stimulus  which  seems 
necessary  in  order  to  set  him  in  motion.  The 
final  result  is  that  a  unique  compromise  is 
concluded  between  the  spiritual  and  the  merely 
human,  which  leaves  to  the  former  its  essential 
superiority,  though  in  detail  the  spiritual  is 
largely  overborne  by  the  human.  No  one 
contributed  more  to  establish  this  compromise 
than  Augustine,  a  man  who  united  a  fervent 
desire  for  a  world-enveloping  spiritual  life  with 
the  deepest  feeling  for  the  needs  and  weak- 
nesses of  men. 

The  idea  of  organization  was  first  carried 
into  effect  in  a  complete  form  in  the  middle 
ages.  It  determined  not  only  the  relationship 
of  the  individual  to  society,  but  also  the  rela- 
tions between  the  different  departments  of  life. 
The  community  in  its  religious  aspect  appears 


UNITY  AND  MULTIPLICITY  59 

as  the  Church,  and  by  it  the  individual  is 
provided  with  a  firm  support,  direction  for 
conduct,  gentler  or  sterner  constraint  to  definite 
tasks.  Thus  a  certain  level  of  life  is  attained, 
a  certain  amount  of  spiritual  activity  is  widely 
distributed,  and  to  some  extent  the  masses  are 
brought  under  discipline.  But  at  the  same 
time  the  limits  of  achievement  are  unmistak- 
able. Such  a  system  of  subordination  and 
solidarity  inevitably  involves  a  serious  loss  of 
independence,  and  if  independence  is  lost  the 
inward  life  is  bound  to  suffer  injury.  We 
cannot  place  the  chief  end  of  man  in  the  per- 
formance of  certain  exercises  and  tasks,  in  the 
fulfilment  of  his  religious,  i.e.  his  ecclesiastical 
"  duties,"  without  reducing  the  experiences  of 
his  soul  to  a  position  of  secondary  importance, 
and  letting  outward  acts  repress  inward  dis- 
position. The  centre  of  gravity  of  life  is 
removed  more  and  more  from  the  soul  of  the 
individual,  and  the  latter  is  treated  as  a  mere 
appendage  of  the  gigantic  ecclesiastical  system. 
It  is  a  natural  development  of  this  position 


60  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

that  the  Church  becomes  not  only  the  exclusive 
custodian  of  truth,  but  also  the  keeper  of  the 
moral  conscience  of  humanity.  Her  ministers 
decide  what  each  man  has  to  hold  for  truth, 
and  what  is  the  good  he  has  to  strive  after. 
She  believes  that  she  has  the  power  of  con- 
ferring eternal  salvation  on  them,  or  of  con- 
demning them  to  eternal  misery.  The  more 
this  conviction  prevails  and  becomes  a  part  of 
life,  though  the  spontaneity  of  life  in  its  par- 
ticular manifestations  is  dried  up,  the  more 
must  the  greatness  of  man  consist  in  willing 
submission,  and  the  more  must  his  piety  acquire 
the  character  of  a  blind  devotion.  But  all  the 
smaller  is  the  place  left  for  independent  convic- 
tion and  disposition,  for  erect  and  self-active 
personalities.  Thus  the  latest  papal  Syllabus 
actually  required  men  not  only  to  receive  the 
decisions  of  the  Church  obediently,  but  to  hold 
these  decisions  as  their  own  beliefs.  If  the 
independence  of  the  personality  is  violated  in 
this  way,  acts  as  well  as  belief  will  acquire  a 
predominantly  passive  character.  Hence  it  is 


UNITY   AND   MULTIPLICITY  61 

again  consistent  with  these  medieval  modes 
of  thought  when  the  latest  Encyclical  re- 
proaches the  Modernists  for  thinking  too 
highly  of  the  active  virtues.  The  result  is 
that  the  individual  is  degraded,  and  obedience 
and  endurance  become  the  highest  virtues 
in  his  life. 

The  medieval  tendency  towards  organiza- 
tion affected  also  the  life  of  culture,  and  it 
was  Scholasticism  in  particular  which  gave 
philosophical  expression  to  this  tendency. 
The  rigour  of  the  older  thought,  which  in- 
volves the  exclusive  concentration  of  life  on 
religion  and  allows  all  diversity  to  be  absorbed 
in  unity,  is  here  moderated.  The  other  de- 
partments of  life  are  accorded  some  rights ; 
they  are  taken  up  into  a  general  scheme  in  a 
way  that  resembles  the  Greek  synthesis  of 
life,  especially  as  carried  out  by  Aristotle. 
The  artistic  and  the  religious  struggle  for 
unity  are  to  be  fused  into  a  comprehensive 
totality  of  life  within  which  their  differences 
are  reconciled.  The  idea  of  gradation  seems 


62  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

to  render  this  possible  by  handing  over  the 
direction  of  the  whole  to  religion,  but  guaran- 
teeing a  certain  independence  to  the  other 
departments  which  fall  within  the  sphere  of 
the  universal  reason  and  the  secular  life. 
This  inclusion  of  all  interests  certainly  sets 
men  a  great  and  imperative  problem,  but  the 
solution  here  offered  is  much  too  external  to 
be  felt  as  satisfactory  beyond  the  middle 
ages.  This  scheme  of  subordination  leaves 
the  other  departments  of  life  no  real  inde- 
pendence and  no  spontaneity  of  creative  effort. 
But  this  is  not  the  only  unsatisfactory  feature, 
for  it  is  also  found  that  the  spiritual  life  is 
wanting  in  inner  unity,  since  religion,  on  the 
one  hand,  with  its  elevation  above  the  world, 
and  an  essentially  earthly  culture  on  the  other, 
with  its  joyous  reconstitution  of  the  world, 
pull  in  precisely  opposite  directions,  so  that 
only  an  extremely  external  conception  of  the 
problem  and  extreme  superficiality  in  the 
mode  of  attacking  it  could  bring  them  into 
immediate  union. 


UNITY  AND  MTTLTIPLICITY  63 

This  attempt  to  solve  the  problem  of  unity 
is,  as  a  whole,  magnificent  and  in  its  way 
unique.  But  the  influence  which  it  exercised 
on  mankind  was  considerably  modified  through 
Mysticism,  and  it  involves  a  presupposition 
which  is  open  to  dispute.  It  demands  men 
who  are  either  senile  or  else  spiritually  im- 
mature :  it  cannot  satisfy  men  who  are  grown 
up  and  conscious  of  their  powers.  But  ever 
since  the  close  of  the  middle  ages  humanity 
has  been  striving  to  attain  its  majority,  and 
it  is  just  this  endeavour  which  ushers  in  a  new 
epoch  and  gives  it  a  distinctive  character.  A 
growing  feeling  of  power  requires  a  life  that 
is  independent  and  spontaneous,  and  it  cannot 
have  it  unless  individuals  are  called  upon  to 
exercise  their  powers  in  the  freest  way.  This 
caused  authority  to  be  felt  as  an  oppressive 
burden,  and  the  medieval  synthesis  was  proved 
to  be  too  narrow  for  the  wealth  of  life  that 
was  struggling  upwards.  Hence  a  breach 
with  the  old  order  became  inevitable,  and  life 
took  a  course  which  was  directly  opposed  to 


64  THE   LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

that  which  it  had  previously  followed.  The 
leading  tendency  had  hitherto  been  from 
multiplicity  towards  unity,  from  an  un- 
organized to  an  organized  life,  but  now  the 
movement  is  directed  towards  multiplicity, 
towards  the  apprehension  and  elaboration  of 
all  that  is  specific  and  individual.  Freedom 
from  every  tie,  complete  emancipation,  now 
becomes  the  main  aim,  and  a  demand  to  which 
everything  must  give  way.  At  the  beginning 
there  was  no  intention  of  shaking  off  all  the 
traditional  connections  and  making  the  in- 
dividual rely  entirely  on  his  own  powers :  the 
intention  was  rather  that,  at  such  and  such  a 
particular  point,  the  whole  should  be  more 
immediately  apprehended,  made  to  live  more 
intensely,  and  wrought  out  into  a  distinctive 
form.  But  gradually  these  connections  sank 
in  importance,  and  the  individual  freed  him- 
self more  and  more  from  all  ties.  Hence  any 
co-ordination  of  life  could  only  come  from  the 
individual  himself,  and  must  never  be  incon- 
sistent with  his  freedom.  The  complications 


UNITY   AND   MULTIPLICITY  65 

which  arise  from  this  position  we  shall  have 
to  deal  with  immediately. 

The  old  philosophy,  which  was  deeply 
rooted,  and  occupied  a  hallowed  place  in  the 
beliefs  of  mankind,  might  regard  this  striving 
for  freedom  as  a  mere  movement  of  opposi- 
tion, as  a  bold  revolt  and  a  piece  of  defiant 
presumption.  Such  reproaches  have  not  yet 
been  finally  silenced.  But  that  this  striving 
after  freedom  was  in  reality  something  more, 
that  it  was  the  result  of  a  spiritual  necessity, 
is  proved  by  the  enormous  enrichment  and 
development  of  life  to  which  it  has  given  rise, 
and  the  enormous  range  of  actuality  which 
it  has  opened  up.  If  the  unfolding  of  the 
powers  of  the  individual  were  nothing  more 
than  a  movement  of  negation  and  contradic- 
tion, this  victory  of  individuality  could  never 
have  been  the  source  of  the  amount  of  life 
and  creative  effort  to  which,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  it  has  given  rise.  That  the  change 
extends  beyond  all  merely  human  ideas  into 

the  fundamental  texture  of  life  itself,  is  proved, 

5 


66  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

among  other  things,  by  the  transformation  of 
the  inner  life  as  compared  with  the  middle 
ages.  The  middle  ages  were  by  no  means 
wanting  in  inner  life,  but  it  was  an  inner  life 
of  a  rather  weak  and  passive  kind ;  man  felt 
himself  untrammelled  by  the  world  in  the 
silent  ebb  and  flow  of  immediate  personal 
experience.  The  modern  period,  on  the 
contrary,  develops  an  inner  life  of  an  active 
kind  which  insists  on  making  its  power  felt, 
subjecting  the  world  and  making  it  conform 
to  its  own  demands.  Whatever  may  be  the 
problems  involved,  it  cannot  hide  the  truth 
which  this  movement  brought  into  pro- 
minence, viz.,  that  complete  spontaneity  is 
essential  to  genuine  spiritual  life,  and  that 
this  spontaneity  requires  both  freedom  and 
self- activity.  But  we  cannot  have  these  latter 
without  the  recognition  of  the  special  character 
of  each  particular  part,  the  recognition  of 
individuality.  Where  such  movements  arise 
and  make  themselves  felt,  life  is  bound  to  be 
essentially  changed. 


UNITY  AND   MULTIPLICITY  67 

In  justification  of  the  new  movement  this 
also  may  be  alleged,  viz.,  that  the  great  civilized 
nations  have  imported  into  it  each  its  own 
specific  character  and  have  accentuated  this 
character  by  its  further  progress.  Nothing 
distinguishes  one  from  another  more  than  the 
special  direction  in  which  they  seek  and  de- 
mand deliverance  for  humanity.  In  art  and 
in  the  general  tone  of  life,  the  Italians,  the 
first  modern  men,  occupy  the  earliest  place. 
The  French  continue  the  same  tendency  and 
carry  it  further  into  the  ramifications  of 
existence,  and  their  leading  spirits  set  an 
example  to  the  individual  of  defiant  inde- 
pendence of  the  world  and  also  of  society. 
The  English  build  up  political  and  economic 
life  from  the  individual  as  the  starting-point, 
and  cherish  the  hope  that  it  will  thus  be 
raised  to  an  infinitely  higher  level.  The 
Germans  represent  the  movement  towards 
freedom  in  the  domain  of  religion,  and  they 
carry  it  down  into  the  furthest  depths  of  the 
soul.  When  their  classical  literature  reaches 


68  THE   LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

its  highest  point  they  finally  develop  the  idea 
of  a  world-enveloping  Personality,  which  is 
grounded  in  itself  and  controlled  by  its  own 
laws.  This  is  an  idea  which  must  form  the 
rallying  point  for  every  attempt  to  overcome 
the  opposition  between  unity  and  multiplicity, 
between  order  and  freedom. 

The  new  movement  shows  that  it  is  superior 
to  all  individual  caprice,  and  is  spiritually  pro- 
ductive by  its  characteristic  shaping  of  all  the 
departments  and  relations  of  life,  and  the 
essential  changes  which  it  makes  in  the  re- 
presentation of  the  world  and  the  existence 
of  man.  The  older  science  consisted  chiefly 
in  a  general  survey  of  the  multiplicity  of  things, 
in  which  they  were  regarded  as  forming  parts 
of  a  great  structure.  Modern  science,  how- 
ever, breaks  up  the  initial  impression  which  we 
experience  of  a  totality,  and  seeks  to  get  down 
to  the  ultimate  elements  and  the  smallest 
forces,  to  ascertain  their  laws,  and  by  their 
help  to  reconstruct  the  world.  This  tracing 
of  particular  lines  of  connection  gives  us  not 


UNITY  AND  MULTIPLICITY  69 

only  a  clearer  insight  into  reality,  but  also 
an  incomparably  greater  control  over  things. 
Without  the  analytical  methods  practised  by 
modern  science,  the  modern  technical  applica- 
tions of  it  would  never  have  arisen.  But  just 
as  modern  science  introduces  more  detail  and 
exactitude  into  its  representation  of  reality, 
and  places  the  motive  power  of  things  in  the 
elements,  so,  too,  its  own  position  is  strikingly 
differentiated  from  that  of  medieval  science. 
The  Scholastic  system,  which  made  metaphysics 
supreme  over  the  whole  range  of  reality,  is 
shattered.  The  individual  sciences  take  up 
their  task  independently,  and  furnish  us  with 
characteristic  views  of  the  world,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  get  closer  and  closer  to  things 
and  keep  near  their  real  nature.  Not  only  the 
individual  sciences,  however,  but  also  whole 
departments  of  life  diverge  further  and  further 
from  one  another,  and  at  the  same  time 
break  away  from  the  control  of  religion  and 
the  Church.  Law  and  Morality,  Art  and 
Science,  become  independent  spheres  of  life 


70  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

which  encompass  man  on  all  sides  with  par- 
ticular truths  and  set  him  particular  problems. 
This  makes  life  incomparably  broader,  richer, 
and  more  varied,  but  is  likely  at  the  same 
time  to  expose  it  to  varying  and,  indeed, 
intersecting  movements.  It  takes  from  life, 
without  hope  of  return,  its  old  restful  and 
self-contained  character. 

It  has  been  so  often  depicted  before  that  we 
do  not  feel  it  incumbent  on  us  to  show  how 
human  society  takes  on  an  entirely  different 
form  when  work  falls  predominantly  on  the 
shoulders  of  the  individual,  how  political  and 
economic  life  is  driven  into  new  channels,  and 
how  the  individualizing  of  existence  penetrates 
even  into  social  intercourse  and  everyday 
customs.  That  which  now  gives  charm  and 
attractiveness  to  work  is,  in  general,  the  fact 
that  its  product  embodies  and  illustrates  indi- 
vidual character,  which  is  only  thereby  fully 
realized. 

The  position  of  man  within  reality  is  also 
affected  by  the  movement  of  modern  life,  and 


UNITY   AND   MULTIPLICITY  71 

a  fresh  foundation  must  be  sought  for  his 
greatness.  Aristotle  declared  that  the  differ- 
ence between  man  and  the  animals  was  that 
the  latter  cannot  go  beyond  individual  impres- 
sions and  individual  stimulations,  while  man, 
in  virtue  of  his  power  of  thought,  can  form 
universals  and  let  his  action  be  determined  by 
them.  Later  thought  differentiates  the  lower 
from  the  higher  stage  by  the  distinction  that 
the  former  is  bound  hand  and  foot  to  the 
order  of  nature,  while  life  at  the  latter  stage 
rises  to  independent  thought  and  self-decision. 
Reason,  which  raises  us  above  the  purely 
natural  order,  does  not  take  its  direction  from 
any  external  source,  but  is  able  to  choose  its 
own  path.  Thus  freedom  becomes  the  dis- 
tinguishing mark  of  man ;  he  is  "  the  first 
freedman  of  Creation"  (Herder).  Of  course, 
the  conception  of  freedom  is  by  no  means 
uniform,  and  often  covers  both  a  higher  and 
a  lower  kind,  e.g.  the  freedom  of  Locke  is 
different  from  the  freedom  of  Kant.  But 
everywhere  that  freedom  forms  the  leading 


72  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

conception  of  value  it  is  taken  as  proof  of  a 
Reason  indwelling  in  man.  Freedom,  too, 
need  not  reduce  the  demands  on  conduct,  but 
may  increase  them  if  an  invisible  world  is 
present  in  the  soul  as  an  awakening  and  con- 
straining force.  Thus  the  Reformation  has 
greatly  increased  the  task  of  morality  by 
laying  the  chief  problem  of  religion  immedi- 
ately on  the  soul  of  the  individual  and  demand- 
ing its  transformation.  And  Kant,  by  deepen- 
ing the  idea  of  duty,  has  brought  the  whole  of 
life  under  an  inner  subjection,  and  has  thus 
made  it  not  more  easy  but  more  difficult. 
In  connection  with  men  like  these,  who 
approached  the  subject  with  all  the  deep 
earnestness  of  souls  anxiously  concerned  for 
the  truth  of  life  and  spiritual  self-preservation, 
who  dare  speak  of  libertinism  ? 

This  movement  as  a  whole  gave  to  phil- 
osophy a  new  form  and  new  aims,  and,  as  far 
as  philosophy  is  in  line  with  the  new  move- 
ment, it  exhibits  a  common  character  through- 
out all  the  differences  between  individual 


UNITY  AND   MULTIPLICITY  73 

philosophers.  Descartes  is  the  first  in  whose 
philosophy  this  common  character  is  clearly 
discerned.  A  strong  craving  after  truth 
makes  him  feel  the  existing  condition  of 
knowledge  to  be  absolutely  unsatisfactory,  and, 
in  particular,  to  be  involved  in  unbearable 
confusion.  The  first  result  is  a  radical  doubt, 
but  within  this  doubt  there  persists  unchanged 
the  endeavour  to  attain  some  fixed  point,  such 
as  the  fulcrum  which  Archimedes  desired. 
Such  a  point  is  finally  found  in  the  thinking 
subject,  in  the  conscious  ego,  and  this  leads  to 
a  complete  change  of  direction  in  the  work  of 
philosophy.  Hitherto  it  had  proceeded  from 
the  world  to  man,  from  the  whole  to  the 
element,  from  the  macrocosm  to  the  micro- 
cosm :  after  a  truth  had  been  apprehended  in 
the  macrocosm  it  was  applied  to  the  micro- 
cosm. But  now  the  microcosm  steps  into  the 
first  place,  the  movement  advances  from  man 
to  the  world,  which  becomes  a  difficult  problem 
instead  of  a  ready-made  datum.  The  truth 
about  the  world  is  ascertained  only  after  it 


74  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

has  first  been  taken  to  pieces  by  scientific 
analysis  and  then  reconstructed  in  accordance 
with  the  laws  of  our  thinking.  Only  that  can 
be  admitted  to  be  true  which  presents  itself  to 
our  thought  as  clear  and  distinct.  It  is  owing 
to  this  tendency  to  start  with  the  subject  that 
the  English  thinkers  make  psychology  the 
foundation  of  all  knowledge.  To  follow  up 
the  growth  of  the  individual  life,  and  to  ascer- 
tain the  laws  and  tendencies  which  govern  it, 
becomes  the  central  task  of  knowledge  and 
determines  all  its  contents  and  range.  All 
the  spiritual  achievements,  all  the  morality 
and  law,  the  religion  and  art,  which  form  an 
integral  part  of  human  existence,  are  to  be 
developed  from  the  soul  of  the  individual,  and 
owe  to  this  source  their  characteristic  forms. 
What  was  formerly  looked  upon  as  a  cosmic 
process,  for  example,  the  causal  connection 
between  events,  now  becomes  something  ex- 
perienced by  man,  and,  indeed,  produced  by 
him,  and  thus  acquires  quite  a  different  signi- 
ficance. About  the  same  time  Leibniz  draws 


UNITY  AND   MULTIPLICITY  75 

up  a  magnificent  scheme  of  the  world  in  which 
each  individual  existence  is  regarded  as  a 
monad,  as  a  metaphysical  point.  As  such,  it 
gains  an  endless  life,  and  develops  this  life 
purely  out  of  its  own  resources  without  having 
any  relations,  or  being  bound  up,  with  anything 
external  to  itself.  While  the  monad  thus 
assumes  the  form  of  a  world,  reality  itself  is 
transformed  into  a  world  of  worlds.  But  at 
the  same  time  Leibniz'  hearty  recognition  of 
individuality  enables  him  to  assign  to  each  of 
these  sub-worlds  a  unique  significance. 

Kant,  too,  continues  this  movement  of 
modern  life,  and  the  whole  of  his  philosophy 
is  pervaded  by  the  attempt  to  transfer  the 
centre  of  gravity  from  the  object  to  the 
subject.  The  theoretical  reason  frees  man 
from  the  oppression  of  an  alien  world,  for  it 
shows  that  the  subject  itself  constitutes  its 
own  world  in  accordance  with  laws  that  are 
indwelling  in  itself.  "The  understanding 
does  not  derive  its  laws  from  nature,  but  pre- 
scribes them  to  nature."  Hence  the  theory  of 


76  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

knowledge  takes  precedence  of  metaphysics, 
and  destroys  the  latter  in  the  old  sense  in 
which  metaphysics  believed  that  it  could 
apprehend  a  transcendental  existence.  The 
practical  reason  frees  the  acting  personality 
from  all  external  constraint  and  leaves  it 
to  impose  its  laws  on  itself,  but,  at  the 
same  time,  in  the  building  up  of  a  new 
moral  order  enables  it  to  penetrate  to  the 
ultimate  depths  of  reality.  Personality  here 
becomes  the  channel  through  which  a  higher 
world  is  revealed,  and  nowhere  else  is  it  more 
clearly  seen  that  freedom,  while  it  destroys  old 
ties,  introduces  new  ones  in  their  place,  and 
claims  to  be  essentially  the  setting  free  of  a 
more  real  and  spontaneous  life.  Hence  the 
new  philosophy  exhibits  a  large  number  of 
results  which  often  contradict  one  another  if 
taken  as  they  stand.  But  we  need  only  in- 
stitute a  general  comparison  with  the  older 
method  to  become  aware  that  the  diversity 
rests  on  a  common  foundation,  and  that  it  is 
not  a  confused  divergence,  but  a  struggle  to 


UNITY   AND   MULTIPLICITY  77 

carry  out  a  common  fundamental  tendency. 
We  thus  discern  here  with  absolute  clearness 
the  close  connection  between  the  form  which 
philosophy  assumes  and  the  general  movement 
of  human  life. 

Anyone  who  is  ready  to  deny  that  there  is 
any  truth  in  such  a  movement  as  this,  with  its 
thorough-going  transformation  of  reality,  must 
have  a  very  low  opinion  of  the  forces  which 
have  been,  and  are,  at  work  in  the  world. 
The  man  who  undertook  to  prove  that  this 
movement  was  nothing  more  than  a  product 
of  human  self-will  would  find  that  the  logical 
development  of  his  principles  made  it  very 
difficult  for  him  to  escape  absolute  scepticism. 
But  to  acknowledge  some  truth  in  a  movement 
which  forms  part  of  the  world's  history  does 
not  mean  that  we  regard  it  as  raised  above  all 
dangers  and  aberrations.  In  particular,  we 
may  expect  that  here,  as  usual,  the  relation  of 
man  to  the  spiritual  life  may  give  rise  to  the 
most  perplexing  difficulties.  That  which,  on 
the  high  level  of  the  spiritual  life,  has  an  in- 


78  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

contestable  right,  and  is  capable  of  producing 
the  most  fruitful  results,  may  be  dragged 
down  by  man  in  his  natural  state  to  the  level 
of  his  general  mental  outlook  and  interests, 
and  thus  be  most  mischievously  distorted. 
Such  a  man  may  claim  for  himself,  just  as 
he  is,  what  belongs  to  him  only  as  a  member 
of  a  spiritual  order ;  he  may  believe  that 
he  can  accomplish  from  his  own  resources 
what  is  possible  for  him  only  in  connection 
with  a  visible  or  invisible  system,  and  this 
is  bound  to  give  rise  to  a  great  deal  of 
error  and  obstruction.  For  the  tragedy 
of  the  human  situation  is  just  this,  its 
greatest  danger  is  the  perversion  of  its 
best  (corruptio  optimi  pessimd).  Hence  in 
modern  life  also  doubt  may  finally  become 
so  strong  that  it  reaches  right  down  to  the 
foundations,  and  drives  life  and  thought  into 
new  directions. 

The  modern  scherie  of  life  arose  in  opposition 
to  the  medieval,  and  is  in  direct  contradiction 
to  the  latter  both  as  regards  its  estimate  of 


UNITY  AND   MULTIPLICITY  79 

man  and  the  general  feeling  for  life  which 
pervades  it.  The  medieval  system,  as  we  saw, 
presupposes  the  spiritual  minority  of  man,  the 
modern  system  his  majority.  In  the  former 
man  appears  as  possessed  of  no  great  spiritual 
enterprise,  and  as  partaking  to  a  certain  extent 
in  spiritual  life  only  through  superior  power ; 
but  the  modern  system  presupposes  men  of 
spiritual  power,  bent  on  high  aims,  for  otherwise 
individuals  could  never  become  pillars  of  the 
spiritual  life.  But  now  the  question  arises, 
whether  this  picture  is  verified  by  experience, 
whether  real  life  does  not  lag  far  behind,  and 
whether  all  the  complications  which  we  have 
just  indicated  are  not  thereby  reintroduced. 
Such  complications  may  be  allowed  to  rest  so 
long  as  the  old  coherent  systematizations  of 
life,  the  world  of  religion,  or  the  world  of 
a  universal  reason,  in  the  sense  of  the  En- 
lightenment, are  still  vividly  present  to  men, 
and  point  them  in  a  common  direction.  But 
the  more  these  fade  into  insignificance,  and  the 
more  man  is  thrown  upon  himself,  the  greater 


80  THE   LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

is  the  danger  that  spiritual  life  may  dwindle 
and  finally  disappear  entirely. 

The  problem  is  most  easily  grasped  when 
we  consider  the  question  as  to  how  any 
systematic  coherence  can  be  introduced  into 
life  on  the  new  basis.  The  more  we  surrender 
all  control  of  the  manifold  by  a  superior  Whole, 
the  more  are  we  thrown  back  upon  the  capacity 
of  the  individual  elements  to  accomplish  the 
same  result  by  means  of  free  association. 
Experience  shows  that  this  is  not  such  an  easy 
matter,  that  on  the  one  hand  we  may  have 
mere  colourless  co-existence,  or  on  the  other 
a  condition  of  mutual  hostility.  And  the 
surrender  of  an  inner  connection  may  easily 
lead  to  a  diminution  of  spiritual  achievement. 
This  is  seen  in  all  the  ramifications  of  the 
spiritual  life,  and  first  of  all  in  the  case  of 
science  itself.  We  saw  how  the  break-up  of 
the  medieval  structure  raised  the  individual 
branches  of  science  to  a  position  of  independ- 
ence, made  them  specific  starting-points  for 
investigation,  and  revealed  the  treasures  of 


UNITY   AND   MULTIPLICITY  81 

the  universe  with  incomparably  greater  fulness 
and  exactitude.  At  first  a  reaction  towards 
unity  persisted  as  a  relic  of  earlier  religious 
and  philosophical  systematizations.  After  its 
disappearance  the  individual  sciences  had  only 
their  own  necessities  to  consider,  and  went 
their  own  ways,  which  soon  diverged.  The 
next  step  is  a  specialization  which  has  eyes  for 
nothing  except  what  lies  in  the  direction  of  its 
own  goal,  and  which,  though  it  accumulates  a 
wealth  of  information,  never  really  succeeds  in 
penetrating  and  mastering  its  material.  Or 
again,  where  more  general  tendencies  come 
into  prominence,  they  easily  succumb  to  the 
influence  of  special  departments  of  science, 
and  this  brings  them  into  a  position  of  sharp 
opposition  to  one  another.  Hence  the  various 
branches  of  science  which  deal  with  nature  and 
spirit  develop  fundamentally  different  methods 
and  standards  of  value,  and,  even  within  any 
one  of  the  great  departments,  the  various 
movements  and  tendencies  are  often  widely 

divergent.       Still     more     dangerous     is    the 

6 


82  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

cleavage  which  takes  place  in  life  itself,  the 
attitude  of  hostility  which  whole  departments 
of  life  assume  towards  one  another.  We  have 
already  become  so  accustomed  to  look  upon 
religion  and  culture  as  opponents  that  we 
hardly  feel  any  longer  how  abnormal  this 
strained  relationship  is,  and  how  foreign  to 
other  epochs.  Further,  there  exists  at  the 
present  day  among  men  of  average  culture  an 
opposition  between  their  beliefs  about  the 
world  and  their  beliefs  about  the  moral  values 
of  life,  which  is  often  concealed,  but  in  reality 
is  very  sharp.  In  the  world  they  recognize  an 
exclusively  mechanical  causality ;  in  human 
life  they  defend  moral  values  and  the  idea  of 
freedom.  The  same  individuals  and  parties 
who,  in  their  view  of  the  world,  greet  every 
negation  with  shouts  of  joy  and  put  as  low  an 
estimate  upon  man  as  possible,  in  the  political 
and  social  domain  glorify  the  greatness  and 
dignity  of  man,  as  if  this  did  not  depend  upon 
inner  connections  and  require  that  reality 
should  have  deeper  foundations  than  those 


UNITY    AND   MULTIPLICITY  83 

offered  by  the  mere  co-existences  of  experience. 
Thus  we  live  to-day  not  only  alongside  one 
another  in  separate  worlds,  whose  wide  diver- 
gence is  concealed  only  by  language,  but  one 
and  the  same  man  lives  in  different  worlds. 
In  view  of  such  a  state  of  spiritual  anarchy, 
how  could  common  ideals  arise  and  by  their 
superior  power  win  the  minds  of  men  ? 

The  problems  which  arise  from  the  relation- 
ship between  the  individual  and  society  are  no 
less  difficult.  When  the  modern  movement 
towards  freedom  laid  the  burden  of  life  mainly 
on  the  shoulders  of  individuals,  it  presupposed 
that  they  were  thoroughly  efficient  and  willing 
to  do  their  best.  It  also  relied  upon  the  free 
association  of  individuals,  and  the  mutual 
contact  and  intermingling  between  different 
circles  in  the  life  of  society,  to  produce  a 
sufficient  degree  of  solidarity  among  humanity. 
Much  has  certainly  been  attained  which  earlier 
epochs  did  not  possess,  but  the  modern  libera- 
tion of  energies  has  given  rise  to  strong  opposi- 
tions and  passions,  and  has  conferred  enormous 


84  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

power  on  the  party  system.  It  has  often 
tended  to  promote  the  unbridled  letting  loose 
of  frenzied  selfishness,  and  has  placed  at  the 
service  of  the  latter  all  the  means  which  a 
highly  developed  civilization  has  at  its  disposal. 
But  this  leads  us  to  the  decisive  point  as  to 
how  the  individual  presents  himself  to  us  on 
the  new  basis  when  we  consider  him  in  his 
own  private  nature.  In  the  higher  strata  of 
modern  culture,  wherever  conceptions  such  as 
personality  and  individuality  have  been  fully 
recognized,  it  has  only  been  by  those  who  have 
held  fast  to  and  reinforced  invisible  connections, 
and  have  resolutely  maintained  the  reality  of 
an  inner  world.  For  we  are  only  justified  in 
setting  a  high  value  upon  personality  if  we 
believe  that  it  reveals  to  us  a  new  kind  of 
process — in  fact,  a  new  world.  The  develop- 
ment of  individuality  can  only  be  made  the 
chief  object  of  human  endeavour  if  existence 
as  human  beings  means  that  men  have  great 
tasks  to  carry  out,  and  contradictions  to  over- 
come, as  the  condition  of  realizing  the  highest 


UNITY   AND   MULTIPLICITY  85 

capacities  of  their  own  nature.  Life  only 
acquired  greatness  and  spiritual  independence 
because  man  had  to  seek  to  enter  into  relations 
with  the  whole  universe,  to  come  to  terms 
with  it,  and  to  maintain  his  own  position  in 
face  of  it.  The  main  body  of  mankind  has 
become  less  and  less  conscious  of  these  inner 
connections,  and,  at  the  same  time,  man  has 
become  a  mere  item  in  a  world  which  comes 
before  him  as  something  given  and  incapable 
of  development  from  the  spiritual  point  of 
view,  and  which  surrounds  and  hems  him  in 
on  all  sides.  Hardly  any  room  is  left  for  the 
conception  of  personality,  and  we  do  not  see 
how  individuality  can  maintain  its  value  if  it 
is  nothing  more  than  a  particular  fragment  of 
nature.  But  if  the  conceptions  maintain 
themselves,  claim  to  be  valued  as  highly  as 
before,  and  make  good  their  claim,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  guard  against  a  luxurious  upgrowth  of 
hollow  talk  and  a  deep-reaching  insincerity  in 
life.  In  the  absence  of  any  counteracting  in- 
fluence, there  is  an  increasing  danger  that  our 


86  THE   LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

life  may  lose  its  sure  foundation  and  finally 
find  itself  adrift  in  the  void,  leaving  us  to 
affirm  conclusions  while  denying  their  premises. 
In  fact,  when  this  tendency  prevails,  the 
human  soul  can  no  longer  remain  a  unity  in 
itself,  but  is  bound  to  be  transformed  into  a 
medley  of  co-existing  and  interpenetrating 
psychical  processes.  If  these  are  not  worked 
over  and  transformed  by  a  superior  unity,  they 
will  come  to  have  a  merely  sensational  connec- 
tion with  one  another,  and  man  will  finally 
become  a  mere  bundle  of  sensations,  feelings, 
and  impulses.  But,  all  the  same,  the  superior 
rights  of  personality  and  the  dignity  and  great- 
ness of  humanity  are  proclaimed  and  trumpeted 
forth. 

Thus  experience  shows  that  the  mere 
striving  after  freedom  cannot  ensure  that  life 
shall  retain  a  spiritual  character.  The  break- 
up of  all  inner  connections  has  led  to  super- 
ficiality and  the  dissipation  of  energy.  In 
addition,  the  course  of  the  movement  in 
modern  life  has  revealed  that  the  complications 


UNITY   AND  MULTIPLICITY  87 

.are  much  greater,  and  the  resistance  much 
more  strenuous  than  was  anticipated  at  the 
beginning,  when  men  were  filled  with  joyful 
confidence.  And  a  further  fact  has  become 
evident,  viz.,  that  it  is  not  only  at  particular 
points  that  civilization  does  not  correspond  to 
the  demands  of  the  spiritual  life,  but  that 
civilization  as  a  whole  is  in  many  ways  in 
conflict  with  these  demands.  We  feel  with 
increasing  distress  the  wide  interval  between 
the  varied  and  important  work  to  be  done  at 
the  circumference  of  life  and  the  complete 
emptiness  at  the  centre.  When  we  take  an 
inside  view  of  life,  we  find  that  a  life  of  mere 
bustling  routine  preponderates,  that  men 
struggle  and  boast  and  strive  to  outdo  one 
another,  that  unlimited  ambition  and  vanity 
are  characteristic  of  individuals,  that  they  are 
always  running  to  and  fro  and  pressing  forward, 
or  feverishly  exerting  all  their  powers.  But 
throughout  it  all  we  come  upon  nothing 
that  gives  any  real  value  to  life,  and  nothing 
spiritually  elevating.  Hence  we  do  not  find 


88  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

any  meaning  or  value  in  life,  but  in  the  end  a 
single  huge  show  in  which  culture  is  reduced 
to  a  burlesque.  Anyone  who  thinks  it  all  over 
and  reflects  upon  the  difference  between  the 
enormous  labour  that  has  been  expended  and 
the  accompanying  gain  to  the  essentials  of  life, 
must  either  be  driven  to  complete  negation 
and  despair,  or  must  seek  new  ways  of 
guaranteeing  a  value  to  life  and  liberating 
man  from  the  sway  of  the  pettily  human. 
But  this  will  force  men  to  resume  the  quest 
for  inner  connections. 

But  the  objection  will  be  raised  that  the 
endeavour  to  attain  to  such  connections  is 
no  novelty,  for  the  whole  of  the  nineteenth 
century  was  taken  up  with  it.  This  is  certainly 
the  case ;  but  should  we  find  ourselves  at  the 
present  day  in  such  a  state  of  unrest  and  in- 
security, as  actually  exists,  if  the  co-ordina- 
tions which  have  been  attempted  had  been 
satisfactory?  In  German  speculation  philo- 
sophy itself,  with  buoyant  courage,  undertook 
to  understand  the  whole  of  reality  as  the 


UNITY   AND   MULTIPLICITY  89 

unfolding  of  a  single  all-embracing  spiritual 
process.  Hegel,  in  particular,  makes  all 
philosophy  to  be  the  search  for  unity,  and 
at  the  same  time  gives  a  symmetrical  form 
to  the  whole  of  existence.  But  however 
powerful  have  been  the  influences  which  this 
attempt  has  exercised,  and  still  exercises,  it 
has  not  met  with  universal  recognition,  not 
only  because  in  the  meantime  there  took  place 
the  well-known  movement  of  life  towards  the 
visible  world,  but  also  because  man  was 
treated  in  the  Hegelian  system  too  much  as  a 
purely  intellectual  being,  and  the  spiritual  life 
was  not  given  any  sufficient  content.  On  a 
broader  basis  a  counteracting  influence  to  pre- 
vent the  threatened  dissipation  of  the  energies 
of  life  was  exercised  by  the  thought  of  social 
evolution,  the  carrying  out  of  which  was 
especially  distinctive  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
It  makes  full  use  of  the  connection  of  the 
individual  with  the  sequence  and  co-existence 
of  things,  and  shows  what  is  the  value  of  this 
connection,  how  the  work  of  men  through 


90  THE  LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

long  generations  still  continues  to  influence 
present  conditions,  and,  further,  how  the 
existence  of  men  in  society  produces  a 
spiritual  atmosphere,  a  milieu,  which  leaves 
every  individual  enveloped  and  moulded  by 
superior  power.  But  if,  from  this  point  of 
view,  he  appears  as  a  mere  member  of  an 
extensive  system,  the  question  arises  as  to 
whether  he  can  come  into  intimate  relation- 
ship with  this  system,  and  take  it  up  as  a 
whole  into  his  character  and  disposition,  or 
whether  he  feels  himself  at  the  mercy  of  mere 
blind  fact.  In  the  first  case,  the  problem 
arises  how  history  and  society  are  to  attain 
to  an  inner  connection  which  can  win  the 
allegiance  of  the  soul  of  the  individual,  if  no 
sort  of  inner  world  is  presupposed.  In  the 
second  case,  where  the  mere  fact  of  depend- 
ence is  the  final  conclusion  that  is  reached, 
we  cannot  see  why  man  should  welcome  as  a 
good  this  dependence,  which  is  often  very 
burdensome  and  oppressive ;  why  he  should 
make  it  part  of  his  character,  and  sacrifice  his 


UNITY  AND  MULTIPLICITY  91 

own  well-being  to  that  of  a  world  which  con- 
sists of  merely  co-existing  parts.  Hence  the 
matter  remains  in  some  obscurity,  and  only 
the  constant  interpenetration  of  the  two  con- 
ceptions, as,  for  example,  in  the  case  of  Comte, 
the  founder  of  Positivism,  can  in  any  degree 
conceal  the  fact  that,  by  this  path,  the  goal 
is  unattainable.  In  reality,  what  has  kept 
modern  men  together  to  the  greatest  extent 
is  work,  work  in  the  modern  sense.  This 
has  as  its  characteristic  feature,  in  comparison 
with  earlier  periods,  a  greater  detachment  from 
the  subjective  basis  and  a  greater  independence 
of  the  individual,  the  formation  of  great  com- 
plexes which  develop  their  own  laws  and 
motive  forces,  and  which  combine  and  unite 
with  one  another  the  achievements  of  indi- 
viduals. The  efforts  of  the  individual  can 
only  succeed  on  condition  that  he  gains  an 
entrance  into  these  systems,  and  does  his  work 
in  the  particular  position  which  is  assigned  to 
him.  This  exercises  an  extraordinary  power 
in  overcoming  the  self-will  of  individuals  and 


92  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

directing  their  actions  towards  a  common 
end.  But,  whatever  has  been  accomplished 
in  this  respect  by  such  a  co-ordination,  it 
unites  men  only  with  regard  to  their  outward 
actions,  and  does  not  produce  a  spiritual  unity. 
Wherever  it  is  a  question  of  character  and 
convictions,  all  combination  and  co-operation 
in  work  cannot  prevent  a  wide  divergence,  a 
rampant  selfishness,  an  inward  isolation  of  the 
individual.  In  fact,  if  work  is  raised  to  a 
position  of  exclusive  control,  it  finally  brings 
with  it  the  danger  that  life  may  become 
merely  mechanical.  The  craving  after  more 
soul  and  more  love  in  human  existence  has 
to  remain  unsatisfied.  Hence,  as  a  general 
rule,  the  modern  movement  after  some  sort 
of  connection  is  too  external,  and  does  not 
go  back  to  the  spiritual  foundations ;  we  are 
conscious  of  a  great  gap  with  nothing  to 
fill  it. 

Such  a  situation  naturally  enables  us  to 
understand  how  the  older  method,  and,  in 
particular,  the  medieval  ecclesiastical  system, 


UNITY   AND   MULTIPLICITY  93 

can  again  make  itself  more  powerfully  felt, 
how  it  can  make  use  of  the  perplexities  of 
modern  life  to  recommend  its  own  system  of 
truth,  and  how  it  can  win  the  allegiance  of 
many  vacillating  souls.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
it  acquires  a  certain  power  because,  in  the 
midst  of  a  progressive  disintegration,  it  pre- 
sents a  stable  and  coherent  system,  and  offers 
a  support  to  which  one  can  cling.  If  that  dis- 
integration is  not  in  the  end  checked  from 
within,  then  a  serious  danger  of  a  relapse 
might  arise ;  the  imperative  need  of  some 
support  or  other  might  for  a  time  thrust  out 
of  sight  all  other  considerations.  But  what 
men  are  able  to  win  temporarily  does  not 
necessarily  become  a  power  that  is  spiritually 
productive;  and  even  if  the  old  system  is 
taken  up  again,  it  could  never  regain  its  old 
power  of  conviction.  For  this  rested  for  the 
most  part  on  the  fact  that  the  spiritual  life 
which  was  offered  by  this  system  was  on  a 
level  with  the  general  world-movement.  But, 
meanwhile,  changes  of  the  most  far-reaching 


94  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

character  have  taken  place.  Of  course,  men 
may  make  artificial  attempts  to  reverse  the 
course  of  progress,  or  to  explain  it  away,  but 
these  attempts  can  never  have  the  immediacy 
and  inner  necessity  which  were  characteristic 
of  the  medieval  systematization  in  its  own  age, 
and  which  belong  to  a  great  achievement  in 
the  history  of  the  world.  Hence  no  help  can 
be  expected  from  this  quarter. 

If  men  were  mere  products  of  history,  as 
this  view  makes  them,  if,  as  such,  they  were 
bound  to  the  pre-existing  situation,  and  both 
their  life  and  their  work  were  essentially  con- 
trolled by  what  has  previously  been  accom- 
plished, it  is  impossible  to  see  how  to  avoid 
the  perplexities  which  we  have  set  forth,  or 
how  we  should  overcome  the  opposition 
between  a  unity  which  crushes  out  all  freedom 
and  a  multiplicity  which  breaks  up  all  co- 
herence. But  we  are  not  mere  products  of 
history ;  in  virtue  of  our  spiritual  nature  we 
are  able  to  transcend  our  past,  and  this  power 
we  are  able  to  make  use  of  and  cultivate. 


UNITY  AND  MULTIPLICITY  95 

Fortified  by  this,  we  are  not  left  defenceless, 
and  need  not  accept  whatever  history  offers  us 
as  an  undifferentiated  whole ;  we  possess  a 
spontaneity  which  we  can  oppose  to  every- 
thing that  is  merely  given  ;  we  can  separate 
in  what  is  offered  to  us  that  which  is  spiritually 
necessary  from  that  which  has  been  shaped  by 
human  agency  ;  we  can  emphasize  the  require- 
ments for  the  maintenance  of  spiritual  life 
which  have  been  revealed  by  the  experience  of 
history,  and  we  can  inquire  what  direction  is 
pointed  out  for  our  own  work  by  these 
requirements. 

In  our  brief  survey  of  history  it  was  clearly 
seen  that,  in  the  case  of  the  problem  of  unity 
and  multiplicity,  the  movement  of  life  has  not 
followed  a  single  line,  but  that  the  tendency 
towards  multiplicity,  which  is  characteristic  of 
modern  times,  is  in  opposition  to  the  tendency 
towards  unity,  which  was  predominant  in 
antiquity.  A  critical  estimate  of  the  whole 
shows  us  that  it  is  not  a  question  of  a  mere 
sequence  of  tendencies,  but  that  two  poles  are 


96  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

indicated,  between  which  the  spiritual  life  is 
necessarily  compelled  to  move.  If  spiritual 
life  is  to  be  possible,  we  must  have  on  the  one 
hand  an  inner  connection,  a  creative  activity 
proceeding  from  the  whole :  such  life  can 
never  be  produced  by  a  mere  juxtaposition  ; 
it  must  be  acquired  and  maintained  by  some 
power  above  the  separate  elements.  On  the 
other  hand,  as  we  saw,  the  spiritual  life  must 
have  spontaneity,  independence,  and  pure 
inwardness,  if  it  is  to  exist  at  all ;  it  must  be 
lived  for  its  own  sake  and  cannot  be  imparted 
or  transferred  from  without.  It  does  not 
persist  in  the  condition  which  it  has  once 
reached,  but  begins  to  ebb  if  it  is  not  con- 
tinually renewed.  If,  then,  it  is  incontestable 
that  such  immediacy  and  spontaneity  can 
arise  only  in  the  soul  of  the  individual,  and 
from  this  source  must  animate  all  the  con- 
nections which  are  subsequently  formed,  then 
a  contradiction  arises  which  at  first  sight  is 
insoluble.  Life  arises  for  us  only  at  an  in- 
dividual point,  and  yet,  as  spiritual  life,  it 


UNITY   AND   MULTIPLICITY  97 

must  at  the  same  time  be  a  creative  activity 
proceeding  from  the  whole.  If  this  contra- 
diction is  to  be  resolved,  we  must  make  an 
essential  change  in  the  view  which  we  took 
at  first  sight,  and  deepen  our  conception  of 
reality  so  as  to  see  at  the  individual  point 
more  than  an  isolated  event.  We  must 
recognize  the  presence  there  of  a  universal 
process,  and  a  totality  of  spiritual  life  must  be 
the  basis  of  our  own  existence.  To  be  sure, 
this  world-process  is  not  immediately  our  own 
possession :  we  have  first  to  grasp  it  and  work 
it  out ;  but  it  never  could  have  come  into  our 
field  of  vision  at  all  and  become  an  object  of 
our  efforts  if  our  nature  did  not  originally 
participate  in  it.  If  our  inner  existence  is  not 
somehow  grounded  in  the  infinity  of  the 
whole,  all  co-ordination  of  life  must  be  im- 
pressed upon  us  from  without,  and  this  will 
inevitably  crush  all  independence.  But  this 
again  will  necessarily  cause,  sooner  or  later, 
a  reaction  in  favour  of  setting  free  the  indi- 
vidual elements,  and  will  engender  a  desire 

7 


98  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

to  break  up  the  connection.  On  this  view, 
mankind  would  be  driven  to  and  fro,  without 
hope  of  rescue,  between  blind  subjection  to 
authority  and  a  spiritual  anarchy  of  individual 
elements,  and  would  be  worn  out  by  the 
contest,  were  it  not  that  there  is  a  point  of 
vantage  from  which  it  is  possible  to  make 
some  headway  against  the  antithesis  in  ques- 
tion, though  it  does  not  here  simply  disappear, 
and  at  which  we  are  able  to  protect  ourselves 
from  the  unhappy  condition  just  described. 

The  average  man,  whose  spirituality  is 
sluggish,  will  always  have  great  difficulty  in 
getting  beyond  the  stage  of  wavering  between 
these  two  opposite  positions.  According  as 
the  feeling  of  weakness  and  isolation,  or  the 
feeling  of  power  and  independence,  gains  the 
upper  hand,  he  will  incline  first  in  the  one 
direction  and  then  in  the  other.  But  this 
makes  it  all  the  more  an  indispensable  task 
for  the  work  of  the  spirit  to  develop  a  life 
which  rises  above  that  opposition  and  all 
the  spiritual  poverty  of  the  average  man,  and 


UNITY  AND   MULTIPLICITY  99 

thereby  to  bring  into  as  sharp  relief  as  possible 
a  genuine  spiritual  culture  as  compared  with 
the  superficiality  and  pretence  of  a  culture 
which  is  merely  human.  This  cannot  well 
take  place  unless  we  seek  also  to  establish  a 
particular  organization,  a  co-ordination  of 
mankind  with  this  object  in  view.  The 
medieval  Church  became  too  narrow  for  this 
purpose,  not  only  because  it  bound  up  the 
spiritual  world  much  too  firmly  with  a  visible 
order,  but  also  because  it  made  religion  the 
sole  representative  of  that  independent  spiritual 
life.  It  thus  gave  life  a  character  that  was 
too  one-sidedly  religious,  and  transformed  to 
too  great  an  extent  the  spiritual  into  the 
ecclesiastical.  But  when  once  the  funda- 
mental thought  of  a  combination  of  forces, 
under  the  idea  of  a  spiritual  life  superior  to 
the  average,  has  won  a  footing  in  history,  it 
cannot  again  disappear  ;  it  will  stir  up  and 
move  humanity  until  it  is  revived  in  some 
form  or  other.  Only  then  can  we  attack  the 
problem  of  bringing  into  relief  from  the  dull 


100  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

average  of  attainment  a  heart  and  core  of 
genuine  spirituality  throughout  the  whole 
range  of  existence,  and  of  working  from  this 
starting-point  to  strengthen  and  elevate  life. 
The  constant  presupposition  is,  that  a  spiritual 
life  which  is  a  unified  whole  is  at  work  in  the 
depths  of  our  soul ;  it  is  only  when  it  does 
this  that  main  lines  of  effort  can  be  developed 
out  of  it,  that  truths  of  the  soul  can  be  ela- 
borated, and  that  the  way  can  be  prepared  tor 
an  inner  solidarity  of  the  soul. 

If  this  is  impossible  without  the  constant 
co-operation  of  philosophy,  then  philosophy 
itself  must  receive  a  new  form  from  the  new 
connections,  and  must  develop  new  methods. 
Its  first  task  is  to  provide  a  new  starting-point 
for  its  own  work.  It  can  no  longer  take  its 
stand  on  the  external  world,  as  the  ancients 
did,  since  the  general  movement  of  life  and 
thought  has  tended  more  and  more  to  make 
that  world  itself  a  problem,  and  to  refer  men 
back  to  life  as  the  only  thing  which  is  immedi- 
ately present  to  them.  But  if  this  life  is 


UNITY  AND  MULTIPLICITY          101 

understood  as  the  mere  activity  of  a  unit 
which  is  cut  off  from  the  world,  it  can  never 
get  beyond  its  limited  and  separated  sphere, 
and  never  attain  to  a  truth  that  is  universally 
valid.  It  will  thus  inevitably  lapse  into  a  state 
of  complete  isolation.  Hence  it  is  important 
to  show  that  there  is  a  world  which  lies  within 
life  itself,  and  to  advance  from  the  psychologi- 
cal treatment  of  it  to  the  noological.  The  latter 
does  not  deal  with  the  states  and  experiences 
of  the  individual  unit,  but  with  the  upgrowth  of 
the  spiritual  life,  and  looks  at  it  in  a  way  that 
rises  above  the  separation  of  individual  and 
society,  but  at  the  same  time  affords  us  a 
characteristic  view  of  the  whole  of  reality. 

If  we  thus  start  from  the  spiritual  life  as 
a  unified  whole,  and  strive  to  reach  some 
systematization  of  life  in  work,  we  need  not 
be  afraid  that  humanity  will  sink  to  a  condition 
of  rigid  uniformity :  ample  provision  has  here 
been  made  for  movement  and  variety.  For, 
in  the  first  place,  spiritual  life  as  a  whole  will 
always  need  to  be  recognized  and  appropriated 


102  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

by  men,  and  in  doing  so  different  minds  will 
inevitably  take  different  paths.  It  will  only 
be  with  great  difficulty  that  this  divergence 
will  ever  cease  in  the  course  of  history,  or  even 
diminish.  But  we  have  to  struggle  incessantly, 
not  only  to  realize  the  spiritual  life  as  a  whole, 
but  also  to  give  form  to  its  details.  For,  as 
we  shall  have  to  show  later  with  more  detail, 
the  spiritual  life  does  not  reveal  its  depths  to 
man  all  at  once,  but  he  can  only  advance 
gradually  into  it  by  coming  to  terms  with  the 
existing  condition  of  the  world  and  his  own 
soul.  Various  stages  may  have  to  be  tra- 
versed and  important  decisions  will  have  to 
be  taken.  In  this  matter  one  and  the  same 
answer  cannot  be  expected  from  all.  For  the 
individual  may  take  up  his  position  here  or 
there  according  to  his  nature  and  experience ; 
in  fact  whole  periods  may  adopt  different 
positions  according  to  the  impressions  they 
have  received  and  the  tasks  they  have  to 
perform.  In  particular,  one  epoch  may  be 
filled  with  the  consciousness  of  the  inner 


UNITY   AND   MULTIPLICITY  103 

greatness  of  the  spiritual  life,  another  may  feel 
deeply  how  human  existence  fails  to  reach 
this  height  of  attainment ;  the  one  may  there- 
fore be  a  period  of  affirmation,  the  other  a 
period  of  negation.  Great  tension  may  be  the 
consequence,  and  much  strife  among  men,  but 
if  we  once  make  sure  only  of  the  idea  of  an 
independent  spiritual  life,  we  shall  have  made 
it  possible  to  bring  counteracting  influences  to 
bear  against  the  disintegration,  and  in  fact  to 
understand  the  different  movements  as  all 
co-operating  in  a  common  work.  The  only 
essential  is  that  the  matter  should  never  be 
regarded  as  settled  and  done  with.  Let  it 
never  be  forgotten  that  to  us  men  there  is  not 
offered  any  ready-made  relationship  between 
unity  and  multiplicity,  but  that  we  have  to 
co-operate  with  the  forces  at  work  in  the 
world,  and  laboriously  strive  to  reach  some 
sort  of  reconciliation  of  the  antithesis. 


CHAPTER  II 

CHANGE  AND  PERSISTENCE 
TIME  AND  ETERNITY 

THE  relation  between  change  and  persistence, 
between  time  and  eternity,  is  exceedingly 
complicated  and  confused  in  human  life.  No 
phase  of  this  relationship  is  satisfying ;  we  are 
driven  from  one  to  another ;  a  reconciliation 
seems  to  be  indispensable,  but  we  do  not  see 
how  to  attain  it. 

In  the  first  place,  man  stands  completely 
immersed  in  the  stream  of  time ;  his  whole 
existence  is  in  a  state  of  constant  change, 
and  in  the  external  world  he  finds  everywhere 
the  more  change  the  more  closely  he  scrutinizes 
things.  Meanwhile,  the  current  of  his  own  life 
flows  on  without  resting ;  in  comparison  with 

104 


CHANGE   AND   PERSISTENCE  105 

the  endlessness  of  time,  the  existence  of  the 
individual  appears  as  a  fleeting  moment.  But 
this  transience  and  insignificance  of  his  life 
is  felt  by  man  both  as  a  grief  and  a  grievance, 
and  hence  it  comes  to  be  one  of  the  leading 
motives  of  his  work  to  escape  somehow  from 
the  destroying  power  of  time.  He  experiences 
that  longing  for  eternity  which  Plato  depicted 
in  glowing  colours.  The  individual  feels  that 
he  must  soon  retire  from  the  scene,  and  hence 
he  seeks  to  leave  behind  him  some  signs  that 
he  has  lived.  Great  kings  set  up  memorials 
of  their  deeds  and  inscribe  their  names  on 
walls  of  rock.  But  if  we  go  beyond  the 
individual,  we  find  that  the  building  up  of  a 
civilization  requires,  as  it  were,  the  accumula- 
tion and  storing  up  of  achievements.  The 
present  must  maintain  its  hold  on  the  past 
in  order  to  be  able  to  continue  the  building-up 
process ;  our  task  is  to  establish  a  foundation 
for  life  in  face  of  all  change  of  circumstances 
and  all  caprice  of  individuals.  Institutions 
and  customs,  which  are  declared  to  be  un- 


106  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

changeable  and  which  are  revered  as  inviolable, 
are  particularly  dominant  at  the  beginnings  of 
civilization.  Religion  especially,  by  connecting 
life  with  a  sacred  order,  exercises  an  influence 
in  favour  of  persistence  and  keeps  change  at 
arm's  length  as  an  outrage  against  God. 

But  if  we  take  our  stand  within  time  we 
cannot  well  overcome  the  power  of  time. 
The  stream  of  time  undermines  and  destroys 
the  mightiest  and  most  skilfully  constructed 
works  ;  from  the  largest  whole  to  the  smallest 
parts  it  brings  everything  into  flux.  Not  only 
individuals,  but  whole  nations  and  civilizations 
decay;  the  various  religions  themselves,  the 
guardians  of  eternal  truth,  succumb  to  time 
and  survive  only  as  memories.  The  craving 
for  eternity  would  have  to  be  torn  from  our 
soul  if  our  life  belonged  entirely  to  the 
immediate  present,  if  it  could  not  transcend 
it  and  press  forward  to  a  new  reality,  which 
stands  in  a  different  relation  to  the  question 
of  time  and  eternity.  But  such  a  reality  can 
reveal  itself,  if  at  all,  only  as  the  result  of 


CHANGE   AND  PERSISTENCE          107 

spiritual  work,  and  this  work  necessarily  in- 
volves both  thought  and  philosophy.  Now 
it  would  appear  that  nothing  is  more  char- 
acteristic of  thought  than  the  power  to  look 
at  things  out  of  relation  to  time  under  the 
form  of  eternity. 

Greek  philosophy  devoted  special  attention 
to  this  problem.  It  waged  vigorous  war 
against  the  flux  of  phenomena,  and  hence 
produced  a  characteristic  type  of  life.  Change 
in  things  is  recognized  throughout  a  wide 
range,  but  is  degraded  by  the  main  tendency 
of  thought  to  a  lower  level,  and  kept  at  a 
distance  from  the  heart  and  core  of  spiritual 
work.  This  was  not  done  purely  in  the 
interests  of  philosophical  knowledge,  which 
bade  men  seek  beneath  all  change  a  persistent 
fundamental  substance  or  unchangeable  ele- 
ments. Life,  too,  demanded  some  sure  and 
certain  support,  which  should  be  a  spiritual 
rallying-point  from  which  it  could  go  forth 
to  enrich  itself.  It  was  thought  that  life 
could  not  gain  this  support  except  by  turning 


108  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

from  the  restless  activity  of  man  to  the 
universe,  which,  in  its  ultimate  nature,  was 
considered  to  be  unchangeable.  In  grasping 
and  contemplating  the  order  of  the  universe 
and  its  eternal  grace,  man  seemed  to  find 
something  worth  living  for  and  to  be  raised 
above  the  cares  and  troubles  of  everyday  life. 
On  this  view,  knowledge  seems  to  be  the  only 
path  by  which  man's  life  can  be  raised  to  the 
level  of  that  which  is  eternal ;  the  superiority 
of  knowledge  over  action  was  thus  fully 
guaranteed.  But  the  next  thing  was  to 
ascertain  more  accurately  what  it  was  in  the 
universe  which  could  be  reckoned  as  persistent. 
The  answer  given  by  Plato  gained  the  widest 
acceptance  and  has  exercised  the  deepest 
influence  on  mankind.  Plato  sees  in  the 
conceptions  which  thought  uses  a  certain 
amount  of  fixity  in  contrast  with  an  opinion 
which  continually  varies.  On  a  closer  view, 
this  fixed  element  is  determined  as  the  form 
or  shape.  The  co-ordination  of  these  forms 
into  a  great  synthetic  structure  gives  rise  to 


CHANGE   AND  PERSISTENCE          109 

a  realm  of  unchangeable  truth  and  reality. 
This  realm  must  be  raised  above  the  world 
which  envelops  us,  in  order  to  preserve  its 
independence  and  purity,  but  it  exercises  a 
formative  influence  over  the  world  and  gives 
its  efforts  a  fixed  goal  and  an  impulse  towards 
higher  things.  Knowledge  is  here  raised  to 
a  position  of  control  over  the  whole  of  life, 
for  it  is  knowledge  alone  which  is  able  to 
reveal  to  us  this  transcendental  world  and 
keep  it  abidingly  present. 

Aristotle  brings  form  back  into  the  world 
of  experience,  but  leaves  it  its  immutability, 
and  by  his  vigorous  development  of  the  anti- 
thesis of  matter  the  total  picture  of  the  world 
and  life  is  rounded  off  with  still  greater  com- 
pleteness. This  reconciliation  between  change 
and  persistence,  between  time  and  eternity, 
which  was  reached  when  Greek  thought  was 
at  its  highest  level,  has  moulded  the  whole  of 
life  in  a  specific  way,  and  still  retains  the 
influence  which  it  has  exercised  for  thousands 
of  years.  Form  has  received  the  fullest  recog- 


110  THE   LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

nition  as  a  phenomenon  which  pervades  the 
whole  world,  and  it  becomes  the  central  point 
of  spiritual  work.  The  world  appears  on  this 
view  as  dominated  by  the  opposition  of  matter 
and  form.  The  latter  is  the  absolutely  un- 
changeable element,  so  that  to  seek  something 
which  is  persistent  simply  means  to  throw  the 
forms  into  clear  relief.  Matter,  on  the  other 
hand,  exists  in  a  state  of  flux,  not  subject  to 
rule.  In  the  process  of  life  form  takes  hold 
of  matter  and  shapes  it  to  its  own  ends,  but 
matter  always  tends  to  escape  from  these  ties 
and  always  has  to  be  conquered  anew.  Hence 
the  world  is  in  a  state  of  constant  movement, 
but  in  its  ultimate  nature  it  remains  unaltered : 
rest  retains  an  unassailable  superiority  over 
change.  And  even  where  change  extends 
beyond  the  individual,  as  with  the  fates  of 
nations  or  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies, 
Aristotle  does  not  by  any  means  believe  that 
there  is  no  persistence.  The  conception  of  fixed 
rhythms  in  movement  is  developed,  perhaps, 
in  connection  with  the  Babylonian  astronomy. 


CHANGE   AND  PERSISTENCE  111 

Just  as  day  and  night,  summer  and  winter, 
follow  one  another  in  eternal  recurrence,  so 
also  there  are  rhythmical  periods  in  the  world 
as  a  whole  and  in  the  fates  of  men.  Move- 
ment does  not  go  on  endlessly,  but  only  up 
to  a  certain  point,  whose  position  is  fixed,  then 
it  turns  back  to  the  beginning  and  starts  a 
new  series.  Hence  everything  is  both  old 
and  new  at  the  same  time ;  in  the  incessant 
ebb  and  flow  of  phenomena,  in  the  endless 
succession  of  periods,  the  world  as  a  whole 
remains  the  same.  The  work  of  knowledge 
corresponds  to  this  conception  of  reality.  Its 
task  is  not  so  much  to  follow  the  changes  in 
the  coherent  systems  which  have  been  formed 
within  life  as  to  construct  a  general  picture 
out  of  the  confused  mass  of  first  impressions, 
to  bring  the  flux  of  things  to  a  stand.  Its 
procedure  is  not  genetic,  but  descriptive  and 
classificatory.  The  strong  point  of  this  philo- 
sophy lies  in  discovering  fixed  types  or  forming 
them,  to  a  certain  extent  after  the  manner  of 
plastic  art.  It  is  certainly  in  connection  with 


112  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

this  that  we  are  especially  indebted  to  the 
work  of  the  Greeks  for  the  fixation  of  sharply 
outlined  types  of  thought  and  life,  which  seem 
likely  to  remain  a  permanent  heritage  of 
humanity. 

The  search  for  something  which  is  persistent 
is  not  confined  to  the  universe  generally,  but 
extends  to  the  details  of  human  existence. 
The  kind  of  political  life  which  prevails  seems 
to  be  determined  above  all  by  the  nature  of 
the  political  constitution.  The  form  of  the 
state  seems  to  be  that  which  preserves  the 
systematic  coherence  of  the  whole  in  opposition 
to  the  constantly  changing  series  of  individuals, 
and  it  is  this  in  particular  which  has  led  to  the 
high  estimation,  and  frequent  over-estimation, 
in  which  constitutional  forms  are  held.  Thus 
a  tendency  arises  to  construct  an  ideal  and  to 
hold  this  up  as  the  permanent  standard  by 
which  any  change  in  political  relations  is  to 
be  judged. 

But  the  impulse  to  find  something  that  is 
persistent  is  seen  with  particular  clearness  in 


CHANGE   AND  PERSISTENCE          113 

the  way  in  which  the  life  of  the  soul  is  shaped. 
The  ultimate  basis  of  life  is  here  always  taken 
for  granted  ;  in  the  full  development  of  this 
human  activity  has  an  important  task  assigned 
it,  but  at  the  same  time  an  impassable  goal. 
When  this  goal  is  reached,  activity  ceases  to 
be  a  mere  striving,  and  is  transformed  into  a 
state  of  rest  in  itself,  into  an  activity  fully 
satisfied  by  its  own  exertion  and  self-expression. 
The  best  example  of  this  is  artistic  contempla- 
tion, which  is  full  of  exalted  pleasure  without 
striving  to  attain  to  anything  beyond  itself. 
It  seems  that  here  the  opposition  is  entirely 
overcome,  since  the  activity  itself  acquires  a 
sort  of  persistence.  If,  in  accordance  with 
this,  happiness  is  sought  not  in  effort  but  in 
possession,  this  possession  is  no  state  of 
slothful  rest,  but  an  incessant  activity.  Hence 
the  chief  problem  of  life  is  life  itself,  as  the 
complete  unfolding  and  effective  co-ordination 
of  its  own  nature :  as  the  poet  says,  the 
important  thing  is  to  become  what  one  is. 

The   conception   of  form   has   a   far-reaching 

8 


114  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

power  in  this  connection  also,  for  everywhere 
that  there  is  any  diversity  manifest  in  the 
domain  of  life,  it  is  to  be  brought  into  a  fixed 
relation  either  of  gradation  or  of  equilibrium. 
The  general  result  is  a  life  which  is  self- 
existent  and  established  on  its  own  founda- 
tions, and  which  is  exempt  from  restlessness 
and  haste  only  because  it  is  incessantly  active. 
No  one  would  wish  to  maintain  at  the 
present  day  that  this  scheme,  which  was 
drawn  up  by  the  philosophers,  really  controlled 
the  life  of  the  average  Greek.  Very  possibly 
it  was  by  way  of  contrast  to  this  average  that 
its  features  were  outlined  with  so  much 
sharpness.  But  in  the  spiritual  life  and  in 
the  work  of  that  unique  nation  philosophy 
does  not  occupy  a  position  of  isolation.  And 
the  creative  activity  which  found  expression 
in  art  shows  more  persistence  than  in  modern 
times ;  certain  types  endure  for  centuries 
without  crushing  the  individuality  of  their 
creators.  The  technical  work  of  the  Greeks, 
too,  has  more  stability  ;  there  is  less  alteration 


CHANGE   AND   PERSISTENCE          115 

in  its  methods  and  instruments  than  has 
become  the  rule  in  the  latest  period.  Hence 
their  life  has  throughout  a  more  restful 
character  than  modern  life ;  it  is  laden  with 
fewer  unsolved  problems  and  sharp  contra- 
dictions. It  is  not  so  much  a  restless  striving 
after  an  ever-receding  goal,  a  hoping  and 
waiting  for  a  better  future,  as  a  co-ordination 
and  strengthening  of  its  own  powers ;  it 
draws  its  satisfaction  from  the  complete 
mastery  of  its  own  existence  in  the  present. 
This  ideal  of  life,  with  its  reconciliation  of 
rest  and  activity,  has  always  possessed  an 
attraction  for  later  periods,  but  all  its  nobility 
and  greatness  cannot  conceal  the  presupposi- 
tions on  which  it  rests,  and  which  became 
untenable  in  the  following  ages.  It  demands 
a  vigorous  nature ;  it  demands  a  considerable 
activity  which  takes  pleasure  in  its  own 
exercise :  it  demands,  in  fact,  faith  in  the 
rationality  of  the  human  soul  and  the  whole 
of  reality  in  their  fundamental  nature.  Form, 
too,  can  only  maintain  its  position  of  leader- 


116  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

ship  where  it  possesses  an  inner  life — we  might 
say,  a  soul.  And  the  whole  scheme  under- 
went considerable  modifications  towards  the 
close  of  antiquity.  After  the  loss  of  political 
freedom  and  the  cessation  of  spiritual  creation, 
activity  loses  its  old  value,  and  what  is  offered 
in  its  stead  cannot  fully  make  up  for  the  loss. 
Difficult  problems  and  contradictions  arise 
within  human  existence  and  in  the  condition 
of  the  world ;  in  particular,  the  old  harmony 
between  the  spiritual  and  the  sensible  threatens 
to  turn  into  a  sharp  opposition.  Among  men 
the  pettiness  and  meaninglessness  of  everyday 
routine  is  ever  more  keenly  felt.  The  thought 
that  a  similar  round  of  tasks  may  go  on  for 
ever,  may  easily  make  it  appear  that  all  our 
trouble  and  work  is  fruitless,  and  may  become 
terribly  oppressive.  Finally,  when  creative 
power  is  at  a  low  ebb,  form  no  longer  preserves 
the  soul  and  the  content  which  are  necessary 
to  the  furtherance  of  life. 

Hence  old  ideals  decayed,  and  yet  no  new 
ones  arose  out  of  the  chaos  of  the  times.     Was 


CHANGE  AND   PERSISTENCE          117 

it  to  be  wondered  at  that,  in  such  a  situation, 
wherever  all  faith  in  life  had  not  disappeared, 
there  arose  a  strong  desire  for  some  truth  or 
other  which  should  be  untouched  by  the 
changes  of  time,  and  for  complete  peace  in  the 
possession  of  such  a  truth  ?  The  important 
point  is  to  find  something  eternal,  which  leaves 
behind  it  the  whole  domain  of  becoming,  and 
reveals  to  men  a  new  life.  Such  an  eternal 
element,  however,  is  not  to  be  found  in  the 
world,  but  only  above  it,  and  hence  the 
endeavour  to  attain  to  it  acquires  a  religious 
character.  The  endeavour  to  reach  persistence, 
as  we  saw  it  in  art,  in  which  the  fixed  element 
is  sought  within  the  activity,  gives  way  to  a 
religious  endeavour  which  is  inclined  to  bring 
the  two  into  opposition.  Rest  in  the  eternal, 
free  from  all  the  haste  and  toil  of  life,  now 
becomes  the  supreme  goal.  When  spiritual 
life  is  at  its  highest  level,  as  in  the  case  of 
Plotinus,  this  rest  is  certainly  not  represented 
as  a  cessation  of  all  action,  but  action  here  lies 
entirely  within  the  soul;  it  comes  to  be  a 


118  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

constant  and  persistent  contemplation  of  the 
one  eternal  existence.  On  this  view  there  is 
no  room  for  any  change  or  any  diversity. 
Finally  there  remains  as  the  ultimate  fact  of 
life,  only  a  single  and  fundamental  emotional 
tone,  a  quiet  resting  and  free  moving  in  eternal 
existence.  But  this  leads  to  the  threshold  of  a 
new  epoch. 

Christianity  could  not  summon  mankind  to 
a  complete  change  of  heart,  and  could  not 
preach  the  necessity  of  a  new  condition  of 
things,  without  making  a  breach  with  the 
finality  of  the  old  Greek  view.  It  was  just 
the  rise  of  Christianity  which  made  clear  the 
fundamental  presupposition  on  which  the  old 
system  rested,  and  which  was  now  seen  to  be 
untenable.  The  Greek  solution  of  the  problem 
stands  and  falls  with  the  conviction  that  this 
world  of  ours  is  everything  which  it  can 
possibly  be,  that  it  is  in  a  normal  condition 
which  does  not  need  any  alteration  and  does 
not  demand  our  interference.  Only  on  such 
a  view  could  the  contemplation  of  the  universe 


CHANGE   AND  PERSISTENCE          119 

furnish  the  chief  content  of  life,  and  a  content 
which  is  not  only  completely  satisfactory  but 
also  productive  of  happiness.  Christianity,  on 
the  contrary,  holds  the  opposite  belief,  that 
the  world  is  full  of  grave  disorders,  that  it  has 
fallen  away  from  a  standard  which  it  ought  to 
maintain,  and  which  it  really  did  maintain  at 
the  beginning,  and  that  it  is  important  to 
regain  the  lost  height  of  attainment  by  an 
entirely  new  departure,  for  which  a  fresh 
bestowal  of  divine  love  and  power  on  humanity 
is  necessary.  At  the  same  time,  the  world  as 
a  whole  acquires  an  essentially  new  aspect : 
great  deeds  now  become  the  essence  of  all  that 
happens,  they  make  an  ethical  drama  out  of 
the  whole.  In  this  the  salvation  of  mankind 
and,  indeed,  of  the  whole  universe,  is  the 
question  at  issue  and  is  the  subject  of  the 
greatest  vicissitudes.  The  seriousness  of  this 
drama  forbids  all  repetition :  the  thought  of  a 
rhythm  of  events,  and  of  an  ebb  and  flow  in  the 
history  of  the  world,  can  in  such  a  connection 
be  regarded  only  as  a  frivolity.  At  the  same 


120  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

time  the  most  significant  modification  occurs 
in  the  relation  between  time  and  eternity. 
Greek  speculation  at  its  highest  level  admitted, 
of  course,  that  all  that  happens  in  time  rests  on 
an  eternal  order,  but  the  temporal  and  the 
eternal  remain  clearly  separated  from  one 
another ;  eternity  does  not  intervene  in  the 
changes  of  time.  But  this  is  just  what 
happens  according  to  the  beliefs  of  Christi- 
anity ;  it  is  this  conviction  more  than  any- 
thing else  that  gives  this  religion  its  distinctive 
character.  But  the  entry  of  the  eternal  into 
time  must  very  considerably  increase  the 
importance  of  all  that  happens  in  time ; 
temporal  happenings  thus  gain  a  value  for  the 
deepest  ground  and  the  ultimate  fate  of  reality. 
The  building-up  of  a  kingdom  of  God  within 
human  life  is  closely  connected  with  this  fact. 
When  the  old  and  the  new  worlds  come  into 
collision,  nothing  produces  a  wider  separation 
between  the  leading  thinkers  on  both  sides, 
such  as  Plotinus  and  Augustine,  than  the  fact 
that  the  former  reduces  time  to  a  mere  simili- 


CHANGE    AND   PERSISTENCE  121 

tude  of  eternity  and  does  not  call  for  any  sort 
of  historical  progress  in  human  life,  while  with 
Augustine  the  building-up  of  a  religious  com- 
munity, an  ecclesiastical  order,  is  the  central 
point  which  controls  all  his  thought.  It  is 
when  the  formation  and  development  of  this 
religious  order  lays  a  great  task  upon  men  and 
calls  for  decision  on  their  part  that  they  first 
acquire  a  history  in  any  true  sense  of  the 
word.  But  the  task  which  is  laid  upon  them 
is  a  permanent  one.  For  although,  after  the 
victory  of  Christianity,  the  movement  pro- 
ceeds on  more  peaceful  lines,  there  is  always 
the  demand  for  the  further  expansion  and 
development  of  the  Christian  life.  In  this 
connection  Christianity  has  from  the  beginning 
set  up  a  high  goal  in  its  representation  of  the 
kingdom  of  God,  when  men  shall  be  perfect  in 
love  and  purity.  This  goal  is  far  in  advance 
of  anything  which  experience  shows  to  have 
ever  been  attained,  and  it  has  consequently 
implanted  a  deep  longing  in  the  human  soul, 
and  has  continually  lifted  the  thoughts  of  men 


122  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

beyond  the  present  and  the  present  order  to  a 
future  anticipated  in  faith  and  hope. 

But  the  soul  of  the  individual  takes  its  full 
share  in  the  inner  movement  of  life  and  in  the 
shaping  which  it  receives  in  the  course  of 
history  ;  in  fact,  it  is  in  the  individual  soul  that 
the  most  immediate  and  deepest  changes  take 
place.  For,  henceforth,  the  main  task  of  life 
can  no  longer  be  to  make  completely  intelli- 
gible and  hold  fast  a  nature  which  after  all  is 
already  present  to  us.  For  the  intensifying 
of  the  ethical  demand,  which  insists  that  men 
must  be  renewed  and  purified,  makes  every- 
thing which  is  achieved  by  merely  natural 
powers  seem  inadequate,  and  requires  a  radical 
renewal.  It  is  thus  that  a  history  of  the  soul 
first  arises  and  becomes  the  heart  and  core  of 
all  life.  The  great  oppositions  of  existence 
here  come  into  immediate  collision,  and  keep 
the  life  of  man,  which  oscillates  from  one  to 
the  other,  in  a  state  of  constant  tension. 

Hence  there  is  much  more  movement  and 
change  in  Christianity  than  in  the  world  of 


CHANGE  AND  PERSISTENCE          123 

ancient  thought.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  are  many  influences  which  co-operate  to 
preserve  and  strengthen  the  effort  after  per- 
sistence. When  God  is  conceived  of  as 
entirely  above  the  world  and  as  a  personal 
Being,  and  especially  after  victory  has  been 
won  in  the  outer  world,  the  rest  in  God  which 
is  longed  for  when  life  is  at  its  highest  level 
has  a  more  fervent  and  intimate  character, 
and  the  desire  to  be  completely  free  from  the 
restless  and  ignoble  routine  of  the  world  be- 
comes still  more  pressing.  The  appearance  of 
the  eternal  in  time  could  then  be  easily  under- 
stood as  allowing  men,  even  in  this  life,  to  give 
an  eternal  setting  to  their  thoughts  and  feel- 
ings, and  to  free  them  from  every  element  of 
time.  This  line  of  thought  has  established 
itself  and  maintains  a  permanent  position  in 
particular  in  the  Greek  Church,  and,  more  than 
anywhere  else,  in  Greek  monasticism. 

But,  as  a  general  rule,  what  contributed 
most  to  the  attainment  of  persistence  was  the 
conviction  that  the  truth  which  decides  the 


124  THE   LIFE   OF  THE    SPIRIT 

salvation  of  the  soul  was  not  obtained  by  merely 
human  power,  and  could  not  be  so  obtained 
in  the  future,  but  that  it  came  to  us  as  a  com- 
munication from  God,  as  a  supernatural  revela- 
tion, and,  as  such,  tolerates  no  change.  The 
course  of  history  makes  the  Church  the  guar- 
dian of  this  unchangeable  truth.  The  more  the 
Church  detaches  itself  from  its  secular  environ- 
ment, and  the  greater  the  separation  between 
divine  and  human,  supernatural  and  natural, 
the  higher  is  the  inviolable  divine  truth  raised 
above  the  changes  of  human  life  and  above  the 
whole  sphere  of  human  work. 

A  further  support  was  given  to  the  tendency 
towards  persistence  by  the  conditions  of  the 
closing  period  of  antiquity,  with  its  disinclina- 
tion for  any  independent  action  and  any  private 
responsibility,  along  with  the  dangers  attaching 
to  both.  When  it  made  any  effort,  it  experi- 
enced not  so  much  a  pleasurable  exercise  of 
power  as  a  paralysing  uncertainty  as  to  the 
success  of  its  endeavours.  Hence  it  was  bound 
to  seek  for  happiness  not  so  much  in  endeavour 


CHANGE   AND   PERSISTENCE  125 

as  in  possession,  and  it  wanted  its  possession 
to  be  absolutely  certain  and  unassailable.  A 
possession  of  this  kind,  however,  seemed  to 
be  nowhere  offered  except  by  religion  in  its 
ecclesiastical  form. 

Just  as  this  tendency  towards  persistence 
made  itself  more  widely  felt  in  the  middle 
ages  in  the  sphere  of  religion,  so  now  it 
conquered  all  the  ramifications  of  life.  In 
spite  of  their  increasing  power,  the  new 
nations  were  not  yet  in  a  position  to  pro- 
duce a  culture  of  their  own,  and  were 
compelled  to  depend  on  that  which  was 
handed  down  to  them.  It  was  not  to  be 
wondered  at  that  this  culture  was  thought 
to  be  final  perfection  and  met  with  uncon- 
ditional veneration.  Hence  Aristotle  came 
to  be  regarded  as  the  supreme  example 
of  human  knowledge,  with  whom  men 
would  not  dare  to  break,  and  the  attain- 
able was  everywhere  supposed  to  have  been 
already  attained  in  the  past.  There  was 
only  one  task  left  for  men  to  carry  out, 


126  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

to  guard  faithfully  that  which  had  been  won, 
and  to  transmit  it  conscientiously  to  later 
generations. 

This  mode  of  thought  usually  looked  at  the 
life  of  its  own  age  and  the  state  of  its  environ- 
ment in  the  light  of  the  past,  and  this  past 
might  be  either  classical  antiquity  or  the 
beginnings  of  Christianity.  The  past,  with  its 
culminations  of  attainment,  was  that  which 
lay  next  to  man's  soul,  and  it  hung  like  a  veil 
between  the  man  and  his  own  period.  There 
was  something  fresh  to  do  only  in  so  far  as  the 
various  authorities  on  which  men  relied  had  to 
be  reconciled  with  one  another.  This  was  the 
problem  which  Scholasticism  took  up  and 
solved  in  a  very  capable  manner  within  the 
limits  of  possibility.  Thus  life  here,  with  all 
its  externally  directed  industry — and  this  is  by 
no  means  lacking — yet  possesses  in  its  inmost 
heart  a  deep  tranquillity  and  security.  It  is 
usually  exempt  from  agitating  soul-conflicts 
and  corroding  doubts.  In  the  exceptions 
where  these  do  occur  they  are  usually  thought 


CHANGE   AND   PERSISTENCE          127 

of  as  something  monstrous  and  are  condemned 
with  the  utmost  severity. 

This  restful  tone  attains  its  maximum  in 
mysticism.  The  latter  develops  a  wonderful 
tenderness  and  intimacy,  in  direct  contrast 
with  the  hardness  and  roughness  of  its  environ- 
ment. It  strives  to  free  human  life  more  and 
more  from  every  element  of  time,  to  make 
man  younger  every  day,  and  to  transport  him 
entirely  into  a  "permanent  present."  The 
man  for  whom  time  becomes  as  eternity  and 
eternity  as  time,  seems  to  escape  all  pain  and 
to  be  brought  into  a  state  of  pure  bliss.  In 
order  to  prepare  a  secure  lodging  for  such 
peace  within  the  soul,  the  inner  consciousness 
is  here  first  separated  from  all  external  activity, 
as  a  pure  internality  of  the  soul,  and  while 
this  immersion  of  life  in  itself  does  not  prevent 
a  joyous  activity  toward  the  world,  this  latter 
has  no  value  except  as  an  expression  of  char- 
acter. The  close  connection  between  God 
and  the  world  which  mysticism  stands  for, 
may  reduce  both  the  visible  world  and  time  to 


128  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

an  illusion  and  a  dream,  a  morning-glow  which 
disappears  at  the  rising  of  the  sun.  But  this 
may  easily  lead  to  the  thought  that  the  world 
and  time,  as  expressions  of  eternal  being,  gain 
a  closer  connection  and  a  greater  significance. 
These  are  valuable  seed-thoughts  which  may 
lead  to  a  more  inward  comprehension  of  the 
world  and  also  to  a  doctrine  of  development. 
We  cannot  fail  to  recognize  that  this  is  a 
doctrine  which  has  arisen  from  religious 
speculation. 

This  predominance  of  the  idea  of  persistence 
sets  definite  limits  to  the  action  as  well  as  the 
thought  of  the  middle  ages.  Where  the  con- 
dition of  things,  with  all  its  incompleteness 
and  all  its  misery,  was  thought  to  be  the  dis- 
pensation of  a  higher  will,  it  could  not  be  the 
task  of  man  to  strive  to  make  essential  altera- 
tions in  it,  or  to  transform  reality  as  far  as 
possible  into  a  kingdom  of  reason.  And  the 
misery  was  the  more  easily  endured  because 
all  earthly  life  was  thought  to  be  only  a  tran- 
sitory passage  to  a  better  state  of  existence, 


CHANGE   AND   PERSISTENCE          129 

to  man's  true  "home."  Hence  any  effort  to 
improve  things  was  limited  to  mitigating  to 
the  best  of  men's  ability  the  need  which 
existed  in  individual  cases :  no  attempt  was 
made  to  trace  back  the  misery  to  its  source 
and  to  abolish  it  totally  by  a  general  trans- 
formation of  existing  circumstances.  We  find 
no  effort  and  no  movement  from  whole  to 
whole.  But  just  as  the  condition  of  mankind 
was  accepted  as  essentially  unchangeable,  so 
the  great  external  world  was  thought  of  as 
being  once  for  all  established  and  fixed  by 
superior  creative  power.  In  particular,  we 
never  meet  with  the  thought  that  organic 
forms  may  be  subject  to  change ;  nature  is 
conceived  of  as  the  faithful  tenant  of  the  form 
which  the  Creator  has  stamped  upon  things. 

Hence  the  thought  of  persistence  had  a 
secure  predominance  and  determined  the  kind 
of  life  that  was  lived.  To  emphasize  the  per- 
sistent element  in  things,  and  to  connect 
human  action  with  it,  seemed  to  be  in  the 

main  the  chief  aim   of  spiritual  work.     The 

9 


130  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

artistic  and  the  religious  solutions  agreed 
together  on  this  point  and  reinforced  each 
other. 

The  older  kind  of  life  certainly  had  great 
advantages.  To  life  it  gave  an  inner  equili- 
brium and  to  man  the  consciousness  of  being 
encompassed  by  assured  truth.  It  thus  guar- 
anteed a  restfulness  incomparably  greater  than 
was  given  to  later  periods.  But  it  rested  on 
a  presupposition  with  the  overthrow  of  which 
the  whole  became  untenable,  the  presupposi- 
tion that  in  those  achievements  of  the  past, 
on  which  it  relied,  the  highest  conceivable 
limit  had  been  reached  and  absolute  truth 
attained.  If  essentially  new  tasks  arose  and 
essentially  new  powers  were  developed,  if  far- 
reaching  changes  took  place  in  the  funda- 
mentals of  life  and  in  the  general  view  of 
reality,  there  was  bound  to  be  opposition  to 
the  finality  of  earlier  views.  This  opposition 
could  not  be  smoothed  over  by  a  friendly 
agreement,  but  led  to  a  complete  breach  with 
the  old  way  of  life.  For  as  soon  as  the  con- 


CHANGE   AND  PERSISTENCE          131 

viction  gained  ground  that  tradition  did  not 
exhaust  the  fulness  of  life,  that  it  left  many 
problems  untouched,  the  solution  of  which 
was  possible  and,  in  fact,  absolutely  necessary, 
as  soon  as,  in  a  word,  the  incompleteness  and 
the  inadequacy  of  the  old  way  was  put  beyond 
doubt,  its  claim  to  be  final  and  complete  was 
bound  to  seem  an  intolerable  presumption, 
which  must  be  contested  with  the  greatest 
vigour  in  the  interests  of  truth.  It  seemed 
wrong  that  the  achievements  of  a  particular 
age  should  be  stereotyped  and  made  the 
standard  for  all  ages.  Such  an  attempt  might 
lead  to  the  reproach  that  the  temporal  usurps 
the  rights  of  the  eternal,  and  the  human  the 
rights  of  the  divine,  in  a  way  which  can  no 
longer  be  tolerated.  But  the  decision  of  the 
resulting  conflict  depends  on  the  question 
whether  the  modern  period  has,  or  has  not, 
really  given  rise  to  a  new  life  of  an  inde- 
pendent spiritual  character.  If  it  has  done 
so,  if  it  has  unfolded  new  forces  in  the  region 
that  lies  beyond  all  human  opinion,  and  made 


132  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

something  essentially  new  out  of  life  and 
reality,  if  there  is  a  culture  which  is  speci- 
fically modern,  and  if  there  is  a  specifically 
spiritual  type  of  the  modern  man,  then  the 
foundation  is  overthrown  on  which  the 
medieval  doctrine  of  persistence  rested,  and 
the  maintenance  of  life  on  medieval  lines 
becomes  impossible. 

But  when  the  new  life  first  arose,  it  was 
not  by  any  means  the  intention  of  those  who 
introduced  it  to  bring  in  something  new  and 
different.  They  believed  rather  that  what 
they  introduced  would  only  free  the  old  life 
from  the  disfigurement  to  which  it  had  been 
subjected,  and  would  restore  it  to  its  original 
condition.  Thus  the  Renaissance  and  the 
Reformation  were  not  consciously,  as  they 
were  actually,  the  originators  of  a  new  life, 
but  the  restorers  of  an  old  one.  They  did 
not  want  something  new,  they  wanted  the 
old  and  nothing  but  the  old.  It  was  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  with  the  advance  of  the 
Enlightenment,  that  the  new  became  fully  con- 


CHANGE   AND  PERSISTENCE          133 

scious  of  its  own  nature :  old  and  new  became 
clearly  separated,  and  it  was  inevitable  that  a 
middle  period  (medium  cevum)  should  be 
interpolated  between  the  two,  and  hence  the 
name  "  middle  ages."  Thus  was  invented  the 
usual  division  of  history,  subject  to  all  the 
defects  which  are  inseparable  from  divisions 
of  this  kind,  but  nevertheless  an  unavoid- 
able necessity.  But  at  the  same  time  it  was 
recognized  that  human  existence  is  in  motion. 
The  modern  period  could  not  enforce  its 
own  right  to  exist  without  breaking  with  the 
traditional  doctrine  of  persistence. 

It  is  not  for  us  to  consider  now  how  the  idea 
of  movement  has  made  its  way  more  and  more 
into  the  different  departments  of  life,  and  how 
everything  which  stood  in  opposition  to  it,  and 
finally  even  organic  forms,  have  been  brought 
under  its  category.  At  present  we  are  con- 
cerned only  with  the  general  nature  of  life  and 
work.  And  here  the  most  significant  feature 
is  the  change  in  the  fundamental  presupposi- 
tion, as  compared  with  earlier  schemes  of  life, 


134  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

a  change  which  becomes  continually  more 
evident.  To  the  Greeks  the  world  presented 
itself,  in  spite  of  all  the  movement  that  goes 
on,  as  a  ready-made  and  roimded-off  whole, 
and  on  their  view  there  was  no  necessity 
for  any  essential  alteration.  Christianity,  on 
the  other  hand,  which  estimated  things 
from  the  moral  point  of  view,  found  the 
world  full  of  error  and  guilt,  and  indeed 
burdened  with  a  pervading  contradiction,  a 
contradiction  so  grave  that  its  solution  could 
not  be  expected  from  any  movement  on 
the  part  of  the  world  itself,  but  only  from 
some  supra-mundane  power.  The  main  stream 
of  modern  thought  does  not  acknowledge  any 
such  dualism :  it  is  inclined  to  connect  the 
divine  with  the  world  and  to  merge  the  one 
completely  in  the  other  in  a  monistic  system 
of  thought.  But  if  in  this  it  approached  the 
ancient  view,  there  is  the  essential  difference 
that  now  the  world  is  not  thought  of  as  a 
finished  product  but  as  in  a  state  of  becoming, 
and  that  it  calls  upon  man  to  act  on  his  own 


CHANGE   AND  PERSISTENCE  135 

account  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  did  the 
earlier  schemes  of  life.  Philosophical  thought 
thus  understands  the  world  as  the  whole  of 
being,  which  strives  to  attain  its  highest  level 
by  its  own  movement.  The  double  conviction 
that  the  world,  as  we  have  it,  is  extremely  im- 
perfect, and  that  it  is  making  sure  and  certain 
progress  towards  perfection,  changes  the  whole 
tone  of  life  and  the  nature  of  work  in  im- 
portant particulars,  as  compared  with  earlier 
periods.  If  it  was  formerly  the  task  of  science 
to  distinguish  and  emphasize  permanent  forms 
in  the  transitory  series  of  sensible  phenomena, 
and  to  show  that  the  perfect  form  is  the 
directing  power  and  final  goal  of  movement, 
we  now  find  that  the  significance  of  time  for 
the  production  of  reality  meets  with  full  recog- 
nition. The  important  point  is  to  make  the 
existing  state  of  things  completely  intelligible 
by  following  its  evolution  from  the  very  be- 
ginning, and  thus  win  for  man  more  power  over 
things.  For  the  man  who  begins  by  under- 
standing the  evolution  of  things  is  able  to 


136  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

intervene  in  their  formation,  and  can  direct 
them  to  human  ends.  When  knowledge 
therefore  ceases  to  be  a  contemplation  of 
reality,  and  becomes  a  re-creation,  it  comes 
into  closer  connection  with  life  and  increases 
its  activity.  Science  is  the  leader  in  the 
movement  towards  subjecting  the  world  to 
the  human  spirit. 

The  new  life  does  not  accept  any  part  of 
the  existing  condition  of  things  as  absolutely 
unchangeable.  Even  in  the  case  of  the  most 
difficult  problems  it  holds  out  the  hope  of  a 
better  future.  One  task  is  no  sooner  finished 
than  another  comes  into  sight ;  everywhere  we 
see  the  capacity  for  increase,  unlimited  possi- 
bilities are  disclosed.  In  the  first  place,  man 
in  his  own  nature  appears  capable  of  progress, 
and  not  bound  down  to  a  fixed  endowment  of 
nature.  For  nothing  appears  more  character- 
istic of  a  reasonable  being  than  an  indwelling 
of  infinite  life  and  effort.  Hence  no  definite 
limit  is  set  to  its  powers,  but  they  seem  to  be 
able  to  grow  and  to  keep  on  growing.  And 


CHANGE  AND  PERSISTENCE          137 

further,  both  political  and  economic  life  seem 
to  be  capable  of  progress  to  an  unlimited 
extent.  This  progress  seems  to  take  two 
directions :  firstly,  the  getting  rid  of  all  irration- 
ality from  human  affairs,  as  far  as  possible, 
and  the  progressive  transformation  of  our 
existence  into  a  kingdom  of  reason,  and, 
secondly,  the  effort  to  ensure  as  far  as  possible 
to  all  individual  members  of  the  community  a 
share  in  material  as  well  as  in  spiritual  goods. 
And  since  spiritual  work  in  all  its  ramifications 
is  in  a  state  of  movement,  the  idea  of  progress 
determines  to  a  continually  increasing  extent 
the  general  character  of  life.  Since  movement 
continually  breaks  down  more  and  more  all 
the  goals  which  lie  ahead  of  it,  and  fashions 
them  afresh  according  to  its  changing  needs, 
movement  itself,  gathering  force  as  it  goes, 
comes  more  and  more  to  be  the  chief  content 
of  life.  Finally  it  will  have  nothing  beyond 
itself;  the  increase  of  power  becomes  the 
supreme  ideal,  which  is  bound  to  come  into 
violent  collision  with  the  old  ideal  of  giving 


138  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

form  to  things.     As  Hegel  says,  "becoming  is 
the  truth  of  being." 

Movement  cannot  win  control  over  life  in 
this  way,  or  even  claim  to  control  it,  without 
overcoming  the  irregularity  which  had  hitherto 
clung  to  it  and  subjected  it  to  severe  reproach. 
It  must  show  that  it  possesses  in  itself  stability 
and  coherence,  and  is  moving  in  a  fixed  direc- 
tion. Movement  fulfils  these  conditions  when 
it  becomes  evolution.  For  the  conception  of 
evolution  makes  all  the  different  phases  into 
steps  in  one  progressive  movement,  in  which 
one  part  is  connected  with  another,  and  all 
contribute  to  one  general  result.  But  this 
conception  of  evolution  can  extend  over  the 
whole  of  reality  and  shape  it  in  a  single  mould. 
It  is  precisely  the  thinkers  generally  regarded 
as  the  leading  representatives  of  modern 
thought  who  have  given  a  particularly  im- 
pressive exposition  of  the  idea  of  evolution 
conceived  cosmically.  It  is  thus  with  Leibniz 
and  his  innumerable  monads,  all  of  them 
moving  with  slowly  but  surely  increasing 


TIME   AND   ETERNITY  139 

rapidity,  the  summation  of  whose  progress 
amounts  to  an  unceasing  advance  of  reason. 
It  is  so  with  Hegel,  according  to  whom  the 
movement  of  the  universe  progresses  by  means 
of  a  constant  succession  of  contradictions, 
which  arise  and  are  overcome.  Every  indi- 
vidual thing,  according  to  its  particular  nature, 
must  plunge  into  the  stream  of  becoming,  but 
it  is  permanently  preserved  in  that  stream  as  an 
element  in  the  universal.  But  the  whole  con- 
ception of  movement  in  the  modern  sense  has 
been  most  powerfully  expressed  by  the  poet : 

"  In  the  currents  of  Life,  in  Action's  storm, 

I  wander  and  I  wave, 

Everywhere  I  be  ! 

Birth  and  the  grave, 

An  infinite  sea, 

A  web  ever  growing, 

A  life  ever  glowing, 
Thus  at  Time's  whizzing  loom  I  spin, 
And  weave  the  living  vesture  that  God  is  mantled  in."  l 

Such  changes  give  rise  to  a  new  relation 
between  time  and  eternity,  and  at  the  same 

1  Faust,  Sc.  I.     Sir  T.  Martin's  translation. 


140  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

time  alter  the  value  assigned  to  the  present. 
But  a  closer  view  soon  shows  that  the  modern 
period  does  not  speak  with  one  voice  on  the 
subject,  that  the  idea  of  evolution  is  itself 
evolved,  and  has  passed  through  three  chief 
phases.  The  first  phase  owes  its  origin  to 
religion,  and  especially  to  religious  speculation, 
as  it  begins  with  Augustine  and  is  continued 
by  philosophical  mysticism.  Just  as  the  world 
in  its  diversity  is  conceived  of  as  a  representa- 
tion, an  unfolding  of  the  divine  unity,  so  the 
course  of  time  is  an  unfolding  of  eternal  being. 
Time  cannot  thus  become  an  expression  of 
eternity  without  itself  gaining  in  significance, 
and  being  co-ordinated  to  a  greater  degree 
into  a  continuous  whole.  Here  everything 
that  happens  in  time  gains  its  content  and 
value  from  eternity,  and  hence  remains  directed 
beyond  its  immediate  existence  towards  eter- 
nity. In  mysticism,  too,  the  soul  of  man, 
though  it  participates  in  the  work  of  the 
world,  retains  a  profound  peace  untouched  by 
the  confusion  of  the  world.  The  next  phase 


TIME   AND  ETERNITY  141 

has  both  an  artistic  and  a  speculative  aspect. 
It  brings  the  eternal  more  and  more  into  the 
world  as  we  know  it,  and  there  finally  merges 
it  completely.  The  movement  of  reality  is 
conceived  of  as  the  unfolding  of  an  all-embrac- 
ing being,  which  thereby  first  attains  to  com- 
plete realization.  Goethe  has  given  the  most 
impressive  exposition  of  the  artistic  aspect,  and 
Hegel  of  the  philosophical.  On  this  view  life 
is  not  referred  beyond  itself  to  a  transcendental 
being,  but  every  individual  manifestation  stands 
within  the  life  of  a  whole  and  is  controlled  by 
it.  In  this  way  life  can  gain  depth  in  itself, 
and  in  the  stream  of  time  can  grasp  that  which 
is  above  time.  As  Goethe  said,  the  moment 
can  become  a  representative  of  eternity.  The 
final  phase  of  the  doctrine  of  evolution  is  when 
it  reaches  the  level  of  natural  science  and 
Positivism.  In  this  phase  everything  which 
makes  any  claim  to  eternity  is  placed  entirely 
behind  the  process  of  life,  and  this  vital  process 
is  regarded  as  consisting  almost  entirely  of  the 
movement  and  displacement  of  the  elements. 


142  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

Then  everything  that  takes  place  happens  in  a 
single  plane,  and  is  entirely  exhausted  in  being 
what  it  is  ;  it  has  in  no  way  to  represent  or  to 
serve  anything  that  exists  behind  itself.  Hence 
there  can  be  no  question  as  to  its  having  any 
sort  of  meaning.  In  this  view  life  falls  asunder 
completely  into  a  mere  juxtaposition  of  indi- 
vidual processes  and  a  succession  of  moments, 
which  may  to  a  certain  extent  be  summed 
up  but  do  not  form  an  inwardly  connected 
system. 

These  phases  do  not  merely  follow  one 
another.  The  second  in  particular  maintains 
its  position  alongside  the  third,  but  the  main 
tendency  of  the  movement  is  to  concentrate 
itself  more  and  more  upon  the  sphere  of  im- 
mediate existence  and  to  reject  all  persistence 
with  ever  greater  vigour.  At  the  same  time 
there  is  outlined  with  increasing  sharpness  a 
particular  type  of  life  which  fully  develops  the 
opposition  between  the  old  and  the  new  way 
of  life.  On  the  earlier  view,  the  highest  aim 
was  to  live  one's  life  from  the  side  of  eternity, 


TIME   AND   ETERNITY  143 

and  to  retain  in  life  the  presence  of  something 
eternal.  But  now  the  aim  is  to  bind  up  life 
as  closely  as  possible  with  the  stream  of  time 
and  the  changing  moment.  Formerly,  un- 
changeable ideals  were  held  up  for  the  guidance 
of  action.  Every  enterprise  had  to  be  measured 
by  these  ideals  and  to  conform  to  them,  but 
now  they  are  felt  as  intolerably  narrow  and 
oppressive ;  equal  rights  and  the  fullest  freedom 
are  demanded  for  everything  which  aspires 
and  struggles  upwards.  Thus  life  is  subject 
to  incessant  change ;  but  the  more  it  changes 
and  the  less  it  marks  time  and  stagnates,  the 
higher  it  seems  to  stand.  Such  mobility  gives 
it  immeasurably  more  freedom  and  fulness, 
freshness,  and  intimacy.  And  the  individual 
departments  of  life  are  subject  to  similar 
changes.  Education  undergoes  an  essential 
change  in  that  man  is  not  now  required  to  be 
educated  for  an  ideal  which  transcends  time,  but 
for  the  needs  of  his  own  period.  Legislation 
has  no  longer  to  enforce  uniform  demands, 
but  must  correspond  to  the  existing  situation 


144  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

and  unreservedly  follow  its  changes.  In  such 
a  connection  the  conception  of  modernity 
gains  a  peculiar  significance  and  power  of 
attraction.  If  life  is  to  be  a  success,  the  chief 
requisite  seems  to  be,  not  to  cling  tenaciously 
to  the  old  but  to  seize  the  fleeting  and  transi- 
tory moment,  to  make  the  most  out  of  it,  and 
to  adapt  one's  life  continually  to  it.  It  is  only 
if  we  do  so  that  it  seems  to  become  entirely 
our  own  life  and  to  attain  to  what  in  this 
connection  can  be  called  truth.  Thus  we  get 
rid  of  all  rigidity ;  values  become  fluid,  and 
the  stream  of  things  carries  off  everything  in 
its  course. 

But  what  we  thus  desire  for  ourselves  we 
must  also  grant  to  other  periods ;  we  cannot 
understand  them  from  our  point  of  view,  we 
must  try  to  understand  them  from  their  own  ; 
we  cannot  measure  them  by  an  absolute 
standard,  but  by  that  which  they  set  them- 
selves to  attain.  Hence  our  historical  judg- 
ments are  only  relative,  and  man  develops 
the  faculty  of  placing  himself  completely  at 


TIME   AND   ETERNITY  145 

the  point  of  view  of  all  past  systems,  of  re- 
constructing them  and  re-living  them.  Life 
thus  gains  an  inmeasurable  breadth  and  un- 
limited elasticity  ;  whatsoever  moves  mankind 
seems  also  to  belong  to  us. 

But  all  the  advantages  which  result  from 
such  mobility  of  life,  such  flexibility  and 
adaptability  on  the  part  of  the  human  spirit, 
have  a  reverse  side,  which  may  not  necessarily 
affect  the  individual  but  spiritual  work  as  a 
whole.  All  spiritual  work  needs  co-ordination 
of  the  diversity  of  things,  and  control  of  our 
first  impressions.  It  is  impossible  if  the  stream 
of  phenomena  carries  man  hither  and  thither 
like  a  plaything ;  it  needs  a  fixed  standpoint, 
and  can  only  find  it  in  opposition  to  the  dis- 
integration which  we  have  described.  Hence, 
in  spite  of  the  mobility  of  life,  the  creative 
efforts  of  the  modern  period  have  been  eagerly 
directed  from  the  beginning  towards  finding 
some  sort  of  fixed  point,  from  which  the  realm 
of  movement  might  be  understood  and  con- 
trolled. The  only  question  is  whether  the 

10 


146  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

modern  period  has  found  such  a  fixed  point 
and  turned  it  to  account,  whether  it  could  find 
it  at  all  in  the  circle  of  life  which  it  marked 
off. 

There  are  two  ways  in  particular  in  which 
the  modern  period  has  sought  to  meet  the 
advance  of  movement  by  something  that  is 
fixed:  firstly,  from  the  standpoint  of  philosophy, 
and,  secondly,  from  the  standpoint  of  natural 
science.  Thought  in  the  one  case  and  natural 
law  in  the  other,  both  of  which  are  themselves 
exempt  from  all  change,  seemed  to  promise  a 
sure  support  for  the  whole  of  life. 

Modern  philosophy  begins  when  Descartes 
turns  from  the  overthrow  of  all  tradition  and 
the  uncertainty  of  the  existence  of  the  external 
world,  to  the  thinking  ego  as  the  Archimedean 
point,  the  existence  of  which  no  one  can  doubt. 
But  when  Descartes  carries  out  his  method  in 
detail,  it  appears  that  it  is  not  so  much  the 
individual  point  as  thought  itself  which  is  to 
lead  the  investigator  to  certainty.  What  is 
clear  and  distinct  for  thought  may  be  regarded 


TIME   AND  ETERNITY  147 

by  us  as  truth.  But  thought  could  not 
recognize  anything  as  clear  and  distinct  if  it 
were  merely  an  empty  vessel  or  a  mass  that 
yielded  to  every  stimulus.  For  this  purpose 
it  must  possess  a  fixed  original  endowment, 
and  this  endowment  was  thought  to  consist  of 
indwelling  truths,  the  so-called  innate  ideas 
(idece  innatce).  Only  with  such  an  endow- 
ment could  it  oppose  the  stream  of  phenomena, 
and  undertake  to  reshape  the  previous  condi- 
tion of  things  according  to  its  own  require- 
ments. It  was  not  only  thinkers  like  Spinoza 
and  Leibniz  who  defended  such  eternal  truths 
with  complete  confidence.  Kant  was  really 
defending  them  in  another  form  when  he 
maintained  that  all  experience  and  all  change 
necessarily  presuppose  a  persistent  intellectual 
structure  of  the  mind.  The  whole  of  the 
Enlightenment  also  presupposes  them  when  it 
endeavours  to  test  everything  that  is  handed 
down  to  it  as  to  its  reasonableness,  and,  if  it 
cannot  stand  this  test,  to  reject  it  or  transform 
it.  Through  such  a  challenge  to  prove  its 


148  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

rights  before  a  timeless  reason,  the  whole  of 
life  is  vigorously  shaken  up,  sifted,  and  renewed ; 
a  culture  which  rests  on  a  basis  of  reason 
advances  in  cheerful  confidence  to  oppose  the 
culture  resting  on  history  which  had  till  then 
held  the  field.  Thought  thus  becomes  the 
measure  of  all  things  and  the  fixed  point  in 
the  transitory  series  of  phenomena.  The  con- 
ception of  the  nature  and  function  of  thought 
has  undergone  many  changes  in  the  course  of 
the  centuries,  but  it  is  a  characteristic  of  the 
whole  of  modern  culture  that  it  assigns  to 
thought  that  stablishing  and  regulating  function 
for  which  it  looked  first  to  the  universe  and 
later  on  to  the  Deity.  The  struggle  of 
thought  to  appropriate  the  whole  range  of 
reality  and  to  bring  it  under  its  own  laws  is 
the  chief  movement  of  modern  times. 

But  although  much  has  been  accomplished 
in  the  struggle,  the  result  has  not  been  an 
absolute  victory.  The  carrying  out  of  the 
undertaking  was  met  by  difficulties  both  from 
within  and  from  without :  from  within,  because 


TIME  AND  ETERNITY  149 

the  foundation  of  thought  itself  gave  rise  to 
grave  doubts  and  difference  of  opinion ;  from 
without,  because  the  immeasurable  extent  of 
the  field  of  history  offered  an  obstinate  resist- 
ance to  being  enveloped  and  controlled  by 
thought,  and  rejected  more  and  more  decisively 
ah1  such  attempts.  Who  is  the  vehicle  of 
thought,  where  does  it  arise,  and  where  is  its 
centre  of  activity  ?  Descartes  and  the  En- 
lightenment had  no  scruples  in  making  the 
individual  the  vehicle  of  thought,  thus  pre- 
supposing an  essential  equality  of  reason  hi  all 
individuals.  If  this  presupposition  is  contested, 
and  it  soon  was,  then  the  universal  validity  of 
truth,  and  truth  itself,  is  overthrown.  Kant 
met  such  doubts  by  the  assumption  of  an 
intellectual  structure  of  the  human  mind 
anterior  to  all  difference  of  individuals,  which 
comes  to  light  in  great  products — above  all,  in 
the  construction  of  scientific  experience  and 
the  development  of  the  moral  law.  But 
doubts  may  easily  arise  as  to  whether  these 
products  are  to  be  relied  on,  and  are  capable 


150  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

of  only  one  interpretation,  and  these  doubts 
will  then  extend  to  the  common  structure  of 
the  mind.  When  Hegel  finally  raised  thought 
to  the  position  of  an  all-embracing  and  all- 
moving  cosmic  power,  he  thereby  surrendered 
all  connection  with  the  immediate  life  of  the 
soul,  and  attributed  to  the  mind  of  man  a 
complete  absoluteness  which  was  bound  to 
meet  with  the  strongest  opposition,  especially 
in  the  nineteenth  century,  with  its  growing 
knowledge  of  the  strict  and  narrow  limits 
within  which  man  is  confined.  Hence  we  are 
met  by  the  dilemma  that  thought  is  either 
closely  bound  up  with  man  and  is  involved  in 
all  the  uncertainty  and  fragmentariness  which 
cling  to  human  existence,  or  else  that  it  casts 
loose  from  the  connection  with  man,  overstrains 
its  own  powers,  and,  emulating  the  bold  flight 
of  Icarus,  finally  plunges  into  the  void. 

Still  more  comprehensible  than  this  inner 
perplexity  is  the  resistance  offered  by  historical 
life  to  the  claim  to  control  it  made  by  a 
thought  that  transcends  time.  This  opposi- 


TIME   AND   ETERNITY  151 

tion  is  met  with  at  an  early  period,  and  the 
advance  of  historical  modes  of  thought 
strengthens  it.  The  experience  of  history 
shows  with  continually  increasing  clearness 
that  the  differences  and  changes  of  the  periods 
not  only  extend  to  the  inner  depths  of  the 
soul  but  also  affect  the  shaping  of  thought, 
that,  at  the  most,  certain  elementary  forms  are 
of  universal  occurrence,  which  however  are  of 
no  importance  for  the  content  of  life.  Hegel 
made  a  magnificent  attempt  to  construct  a 
world  out  of  the  forms  themselves,  and  to 
bring  into  this  structure  the  whole  of  historical 
reality.  But  not  only  do  the  living  contents 
and  the  individuality  of  the  historical  structures 
fade  away  in  Hegel's  philosophy  of  history, 
but  there  also  arises  the  strongest  contradiction 
between  history  and  the  necessary  demands  of 
thought.  Thought  cannot  take  a  general  view 
of  history  without  detaching  itself  from  it  and 
treating  it  as  already  closed.  But  this  does 
away  with  the  possibility  of  all  further  move- 
ment, and  history  is  inwardly  destroyed.  But 


152  THE   LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

if  history  preserves  the  right  of  unlimited 
progress,  then  thought,  from  the  point  of  view 
of  history,  will  be  seen  to  be  merely  the  ex- 
pression of  a  particular  time,  "time  grasped 
in  thought."  But  then  one  period  has  the 
same  right  as  another,  and  this  does  away 
with  the  possibility  of  thought  being  able  to 
co-ordinate  and  illuminate  history.  If  the 
first  alternative  leads  to  an  intolerable  fixity, 
the  second  leads  to  a  no  less  intolerable 
relativity.  For  the  great  majority  of  mankind 
the  movement  of  history  has  broken  through 
the  scheme  imposed  upon  it,  has  gained  a 
victory  over  timeless  thought,  and  has  vindi- 
cated the  rights  of  relativity.  Thought  has 
thus  been  unable  to  make  good  its  claim  to 
raise  life  of  itself  to  the  level  of  that  which  is 
fixed  and  eternal. 

But  still  less  successful  is  the  attempt  to 
do  so  from  the  side  of  nature,  with  the  help 
of  the  conception  of  law.  Modern  investiga- 
tion has  transferred  the  persistent  quality  of 
nature  from  composite  structures  to  the 


TIME   AND   ETERNITY  153 

elements  and  their  modes  of  action — natural 
laws  are  nothing  else.  This  transference  is 
no  doubt  a  fact  of  the  highest  importance, 
but  it  does  not  mean  that  persistence  is 
surrendered,  only  that  it  is  carried  further 
back.  But  even  if  these  laws  of  nature  could 
be  simply  transferred  to  the  spiritual  life,  they 
would  not  solve  our  problem.  For  although 
the  course  of  events  may  follow  simple  funda- 
mental forms,  this  does  not  give  life  any  inner 
coherence,  and  does  not  direct  the  diversity 
of  things  to  common  ends.  The  reign  of  law 
would  still  leave  us  defenceless  against  the 
changing  currents  of  life.  We  may  all  think 
in  accordance  with  the  same  logic,  and  yet, 
under  the  influence  of  different  interests  and 
apperception  -  masses,  reach  fundamentally 
different  results.  Using  the  same  forms  of 
thought  we  may  reach  more  and  more  widely 
divergent  conclusions. 

Hence  we  are  convinced  that  the  element 
of  fixity,  which  the  modern  period  on  its  own 
ground  opposes  to  movement,  is  either  itself 


154  THE   LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

involved  in  conflict  and  movement,  or  else, 
so  far  as  it  is  incontestable,  does  not  satisfy 
the  demands  of  the  spiritual  life  and  does  not 
guarantee  us  the  necessary  support  for  our 
struggles  and  aspirations.  The  general  result 
then  is  that  the  movement  which  emerges  in 
the  modern  period  does  not  find  in  it  any 
sufficient  counterpoise,  that  it  is  therefore 
bound  to  advance  further  and  further  with 
elemental  force,  and  to  destroy  everything 
that  still  offers  resistance.  The  same  result 
is  further  promoted  by  the  rapid  acceleration 
of  life  on  its  external  side — an  acceleration 
which  the  latest  period  has  carried  out,  and 
will  carry  out  to  a  continually  increasing 
extent,  by  quickening  the  means  of  inter- 
course, facilitating  the  communication  of  ideas, 
massing  men  in  large  aggregates,  etc.  Hence 
it  is  quite  conceivable  that  within  the  move- 
ment itself  the  more  uncompromising  forms 
are  more  and  more  displacing  the  milder ;  that 
all  the  persistent  elements  offered  by  the  older 
conceptions  tend  to  be  slurred  over  and  lost, 


TIME   AND   ETERNITY  155 

and,  in  particular,  that  persistent  basis  which 
the  genuine  theory  of  evolution  supplied  by 
its  conception  of  a  universal  life  gradually  un- 
folding itself.  Life  becomes  more  and  more 
an  incessant  change,  a  constant  letting  go 
and  beginning  again,  a  following  of  every  fresh 
attraction,  a  floating  away  with  the  stream  of 
things.  If  it  is  thus  transferred  entirely  into 
the  immediate  present,  as  we  saw,  if  it  is 
freed  from  all  the  pressure  of  the  past,  and 
gains  an  agility  and  capacity  for  change  which 
were  formerly  unknown,  then  it  flatters  itself 
that,  with  this  movement  towards  modernity, 
it  has  attained  the  summit  of  the  ages. 

But  here,  too,  the  rule  is  verified  that  the 
external  victory,  the  complete  permeation  of 
the  world  by  life-forces,  is  usually  the  beginning 
of  a  counter-movement,  that  the  very  ex- 
clusiveness  of  success  sets  limits,  and  that 
what  is  outwardly  still  advancing  in  triumph, 
may  thus  be  felt  inwardly  as  inadequate  and 
even  intolerable.  The  turn  of  the  tide  first 
becomes  noticeable  in  a  sudden  revulsion  of 


156  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

vital  feeling,  which  completely  alters  the  value 
ascribed  to  change.  At  first  it  seemed  that 
the  setting  of  life  in  motion,  the  stimulus  to 
the  powers,  the  continual  production  of  fresh 
images,  the  opening  up  of  ever  fresh  aims, 
the  unbounded  possibilities,  were  all  pure 
gain ;  life  seemed  to  be  made  individual  in  a 
higher  degree,  and  man  to  be  brought  in- 
comparably nearer  to  himself.  The  individual 
may  still  retain  this  estimate  so  far  as,  con- 
cerned only  with  his  own  welfare,  he  throws 
himself  into  the  stream  of  life  and  seeks  to 
advance  on  his  way.  But,  as  a  thinking  being, 
he  cannot  help  reflecting  on  the  whole,  and 
asking  the  question,  in  all  this  excitement  and 
strain,  in  all  this  toil  and  work,  what  is  gained 
for  the  whole  ?  And  if  he  does  not  covertly 
bring  in  other  bodies  of  thought  to  make  up 
the  deficiency,  he  cannot  fail  to  recognize  the 
inner  emptiness  and  meaninglessness  of  this 
life,  the  break-up  of  all  connections.  Hitherto 
men  had  seen  only  one  side  of  movement, 
the  inexhaustible  wealth  of  novelties  to  which 


TIME   AND   ETERNITY  157 

it  gave  rise :  they  had  not  seen  the  other 
side,  their  equally  rapid  disappearance,  and 
the  unsubstantiality  of  the  inner  life  that 
results  from  such  coming  and  going.  A  life 
of  nothing  but  change  cannot  look  forward  to 
the  future  with  any  joy  or  certainty,  for  where 
there  are  no  persistent  aims,  the  future,  as 
regards  its  spiritual  character,  is  hid  in  deep 
obscurity,  and  we  cannot  tell  whether  to- 
morrow may  not  bring  a  complete  revolution. 
Such  a  life  has  no  fixed  past,  and  therefore 
no  history,  for  the  constant  change  places 
things  perpetually  in  a  different  light;  it  is 
bound  to  make  our  past  character  and  actions 
seem  as  if  they  did  not  belong  to  us,  our 
own  selves  dissolve  into  a  kaleidoscopic  suc- 
cession of  pictures.  And  least  of  all  has  such 
a  life  any  genuine  present ;  a  present  which  is 
spiritual  in  its  nature.  For  mere  time  is  not 
sufficient  for  such  a  present ;  the  time  must 
also  be  filled  with  a  content  such  as  only 
persistent  and  co-ordinating  aims  can  give  it. 
But  the  absolute  movement  which  we  have 


158  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

described  resolves  life  into  smaller  and  smaller 
pieces,  indeed  into  separate  moments ;  every 
attempt  to  grasp  the  present  results  in  nothing 
better  than  mere  opinion,  the  shadow  of  a 
present.  Hence,  as  a  general  rule,  if  this  life 
does  not  experience  any  sort  of  counteracting 
influence,  it  threatens  in  spite  of  all  its  activity 
to  become  a  mere  hankering  after  life,  a  half- 
life  or  phantom-life.  We  may  add  a  fact 
which  has  been  too  often  described  to  detain 
us  now,  viz.,  that  the  breaking-up  of  all  con- 
nections inevitably  hinders  the  inner  elaboration 
of  impressions  and  experiences,  drives  life  and 
effort  more  and  more  to  the  surface,  and 
makes  them  to  a  continually  increasing  extent 
defenceless  and  dependent  on  externals.  There 
is  the  further  fact  that  the  different  movements 
in  the  different  departments  easily  come  into 
conflict  and  find  themselves  at  cross  purposes, 
not  only  as  between  different  men  but  also 
within  the  individual  himself.  If  this  is  really 
the  case,  it  can  be  easily  understood  how  men 
grow  tired  and  weary  of  all  the  rush  and 


TIME   AND   ETERNITY  159 

bustle,  which  is  so  confused  and  yet  in  the 
end  so  empty,  how  this  feeling  of  weariness 
spreads  and  produces  a  longing  for  more  per- 
sistence, more  peace  and  repose  in  life.  It  is 
a  remarkable  feature  of  the  present  day  that 
the  old  mysticism  is  regaining  its  power  of 
attraction,  and  that  the  Indian  religions, 
which  release  men  from  the  cares  and  troubles 
of  time,  are  gaining  many  adherents  also  in 
the  West.  Is  not  this  to  be  connected  with 
the  change  in  vital  feeling  which  we  have 
described  ? 

Now,  such  a  change  does  not  prove  much 
in  itself ;  it  may,  after  all,  be  merely  a  part  of 
the  irregular  ebb  and  flow  to  which  mere 
movement  reduces  life.  It  can  only  be  of 
use  in  so  far  as  it  enables  us  to  take  a  more 
unprejudiced  view  of  the  whole  problem,  and 
free  ourselves  from  the  one-sidedness  of  our 
previous  estimate.  And  this  is  in  fact  what 
usually  happens  in  human  life.  Movements 
emerge,  seize  upon  men's  minds,  and  carry 
them  irresistibly  away.  Men  perceive  only 


160  THE  LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

the  results  of  these  movements,  their  progress, 
their  general  direction ;  they  do  not  see  their 
limitations,  their  presuppositions,  the  problems 
and,  may  be,  the  contradictions  which  emerge 
on  a  closer  view.  Hence  they  are  proof 
against  all  attack,  and  no  demonstration  of 
their  deficiencies  and  faults  can  affect  them. 
No  amount  of  sober  reflection  is  of  avail 
against  the  condition  of  intoxication  with 
which  they  fill  mankind.  But  in  the  end 
some  limitation  is  felt,  and  then  the  move- 
ment's power  of  attraction  quickly  disappears. 
All  the  problems  which  it  involved  now  stand 
out  clearly,  and  the  next  step  is  to  under- 
estimate, and  in  fact  to  treat  unfairly,  what 
was  so  long  overestimated.  We  are  ex- 
periencing to-day  just  such  a  reversal  of 
opinion  with  regard  to  the  attempt  to  reduce 
life  to  mere  movement.  It  is  a  change  which 
is  first  felt  in  the  higher  strata  of  the  intel- 
lectual atmosphere,  and  not  among  the  great 
majority  of  people  who  lag  behind  any  move- 
ment and  believe  that  something  has  come 


TIME   AND   ETERNITY  161 

into  existence  when  it  has  at  last  attracted 
their  notice.  We  are  becoming  more  and 
more  clearly  aware  of  the  presupposition  on 
which  alone  this  belief  in  movement  could 
take  upon  itself  the  guidance  of  the  whole  of 
life.  The  presupposition  is  that  movement  is 
a  sure  and  constant  ascent,  that  it  can,  out  of 
its  own  resources,  overcome  all  the  obstacles 
which  it  meets  with  or  produces  out  of  itself : 
on  this  view  it  can  never  give  rise  to  com- 
plications against  which  it  is  defenceless.  In 
so  far  as  this  widens  out  to  a  general  view  of 
the  world  and  history,  it  involves  the  demand 
not  only  that  our  reality  shall  be  rational  in 
its  ultimate  nature,  but  also  that  man  shall 
be  able  to  make  himself  absolutely  certain  of 
it.  Rationalism  and  optimism  are  here  in- 
dispensable. But  optimism  has  not  only 
aroused  many  misgivings  when  looked  at  from 
without :  from  within,  also,  it  very  easily 
appears  superficial  and  untrue.  We  see  clearly 
before  our  eyes  the  hard  and  pitiless  struggle 

for  existence  both  in  nature  and  among  men, 

11 


162  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

the  constraint  and  insecurity  of  spiritual  life 
in  the  world  in  which  we  live,  but,  above  all, 
the  insufficiency  of  man  for  the  spiritual  tasks 
on  which  the  value  of  his  existence  depends, 
the  wide  interval  between  genuine  spiritual 
culture  and  what  men  like  to  call  culture.  If 
we  take  a  general  view,  human  existence  seems 
to  be  a  grave  contradiction.  And,  when  we 
come  to  the  more  detailed  shaping  of  existence, 
we  begin  to  doubt  the  presupposition  which 
underlies  the  interpretation  of  history  as  an 
evolution  that  becomes  more  and  more  rational, 
viz.,  the  presupposition  that  movement  starts 
from  a  fixed  point  and  makes  sure  progress 
towards  its  goal,  that  any  doubt  which  may 
arise  only  concerns  details  and  cannot  call  in 
question  movement  as  a  whole.  For  the 
present  state  of  opinion,  with  its  complete 
uncertainty  as  to  the  final  aims  of  man  and 
the  meaning  of  his  existence,  is  sufficient  proof 
that  doubt  does  extend  to  the  whole,  and  that 
the  whole,  if  it  is  to  have  any  influence  upon 
us,  requires  on  our  part  a  continuous  act  of 


TIME   AND  ETERNITY  163 

recognition  and  appropriation.  But  if  this  is 
the  case,  then  evolution  cannot  be  the  last 
word :  action  and  decision  must  come  before 
evolution.  And  at  the  same  time  we  clearly 
see  what  difficulties  lie  in  the  relation  between 
action  and  evolution,  and  how  easily  evolution 
can  come  into  collision  with  the  fundamental 
conception  of  history.  Where  evolution  pre- 
vails, the  order  of  the  whole  prescribes  what  is 
to  be  done  at  each  point,  and  the  direction  to 
be  followed  :  there  is  no  choice  and  no  freedom 
of  decision.  But  without  these  there  can  be 
no  history  in  the  specifically  human  sense. 
To  talk  of  historical  evolution  is,  properly 
speaking,  an  absurdity.  Where  there  is 
evolution  there  is  no  real  history,  and  where 
there  is  history  there  is  no  evolution.  For  if 
we  are  to  have  history,  the  individual  must 
have  freedom  of  decision,  but  this  is  excluded 
by  evolution. 

But,  above  all,  the  very  attempt  to  deny  it 
only  demonstrates  with  greater  clearness  and 
cogency  the  old  truth  that  there  can  be  no 


164  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

real  spiritual  life  unless  it  is  raised  above  time, 
that  otherwise  the  true  is  subordinated  and 
sacrificed  to  mere  opinion,  the  good  to  mere 
utility,  and,  generally,  all  independent  spiritu- 
ality to  the  trivial  round  of  merely  human 
activities.  Man,  too,  in  the  end  cannot 
tolerate  such  distortion  of  the  spiritual  life, 
for  it  deprives  everything  which  distinguishes 
him  from  nature  of  its  end  and  meaning,  and 
condemns  his  life  to  absolute  emptiness. 
Emptiness,  however,  is  more  difficult  to  bear 
than  pain.  Hence  the  craving  after  happiness 
drives  us  continually  to  renew  our  demand 
for  a  truth  which  transcends  time,  and  forces 
spiritual  work,  and  philosophy  in  particular, 
to  seek  ways  of  securing  it. 

When  faith  in  the  power  of  modern  move- 
ment thus  disappears,  and  a  craving  after 
some  fixed  content  of  life  is  re-awakened,  the 
medieval  system  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  may  seem  likely  to  solve  our  difficulties 
and  may  summon  mankind  to  return  to  its 
fold.  We  found  that  this  was  the  case  when 


TIME  AND  ETERNITY  165 

we  were  considering  the  problem  of  finding 
connections  in  life.  But  such  a  return  could 
only  satisfy  a  few  tired  and  faltering  souls, 
for  whom  the  visible  and  tangible  is  at  the 
same  time  the  spiritually  certain :  it  is  not 
capable  of  satisfying  the  demands  of  the 
spiritual  life.  Medieval  thought  rested  on 
the  presupposition  and  conviction  that  the 
height  of  human  achievement  in  every  sphere 
had  been  already  reached,  that  there  could  be 
nothing  essentially  new.  But  this  presup- 
position has  been  obviously  refuted  by  the 
whole  course  of  the  modern  period,  with  its 
fundamental  transformation  of  human  ex- 
istence. The  man  who,  to  avoid  flatly  con- 
tradicting the  evidence  of  his  senses,  would 
perhaps  be  willing  to  recognize  movement 
outside  of  religion,  and  only  wished  to  deny 
its  existence  inside,  would  by  this  means 
divide  human  life  into  two  contrary  species, 
and  would  assign  our  efforts  to  fundamentally 
different  motives  and  feelings.  He  would 
produce  an  inner  discord  in  the  soul,  which  is 


166  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

fatal  to  the  vigorous  conduct  of  life,  and 
absolutely  foreign  to  the  middle  ages,  which 
extended  the  tendency  to  persistence  over  the 
whole  of  life.  Thus  at  that  time  religion 
could  be  regarded  as  in  its  whole  extent 
exempt  from  all  change  only  because  men 
unhesitatingly  accepted  it,  just  as  it  was,  as 
an  undivided  whole,  because  they  had  no 
insight  into  its  gradual  growth  and  the  con- 
ditions of  this  growth.  Only  thus  could  it 
be  entirely  separated  from  the  human  sphere 
and  regarded  as  a  pure  revelation  of  God. 
But  now  the  scientific  study  of  history  has 
brought  this  department  also  under  its  sway, 
and  proved  how  it  was  shaped  in  detail,  very 
gradually  at  first,  and  under  the  strong 
influences  of  human  needs,  interests,  and  ideas. 
It  is  to  confuse  the  human  and  the  divine, 
and  to  do  the  divine  a  grave  injustice,  if  for 
that  system,  which  has  in  great  part  been 
recognized  as  human  and  temporal,  a  venera- 
tion is  demanded  which  is  the  due  of  the 
divine  and  the  eternal  alone.  Hence  we 


TIME   AND   ETERNITY  167 

cannot  solve  our  present   perplexities   by   a 
return  to  the  middle  ages. 

But  what  is  true  of  the  middle  ages  applies 
to  all  the  epochs  and  achievements  of  the  past. 
They  may  help  us  on  our  way  if  we  have  an 
independence  of  our  own  to  oppose  to  them, 
and  if  we  can  thus  transmute  them  into 
our  own  life,  but  they  are  quite  incapable 
of  compensating  us  for  the  loss  of  inde- 
pendence. We  are  very  fond  to-day  of 
evading  the  urgent  problems  of  the  present 
by  seizing  upon  some  culminating  point  of  the 
past,  by  according  to  it  unconditional  venera- 
tion and  absolute  devotion,  and  then  using  it 
as  a  basis  from  which  to  supplement  and 
consolidate  the  present.  In  doing  so  we 
usually  emphasize  the  points  of  contact  and 
minimize  the  differences,  but  we  forget  that 
the  present  situation  sets  us  problems  which 
are  far  too  specific  and  far  too  pressing  to 
admit  of  being  solved  or  even  essentially 
advanced  by  such  indirect  means.  This  re- 
course to  history,  which  is  evident  to-day  in 


168  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

all  departments  of  spiritual  work,  yields  at 
the  best  only  a  substitute  for  a  real  life  of 
our  own.  A  substitute  is  certainly  better 
than  nothing,  but  it  produces  the  illusion 
that  we  possess  the  real  thing  when  we  are 
inwardly  poor,  and  it  threatens  to  limit  our 
life  to  half  truths,  and  indeed  untruths. 

There  is  only  one  way  left  to  overcome 
our  present  perplexities :  humanity  must  go 
on  with  its  independent  work,  it  must  use  its 
own  powers  to  bring  about  a  new  situation. 
The  demand  for  a  new  type  of  life  and  a  new 
type  of  culture  becomes  more  and  more  in- 
sistent ;  as  the  present  crisis  owes  its  origin 
to  the  whole  of  life,  so  it  can  be  overcome 
only  by  a  further  development  of  the  whole. 
The  work  of  philosophy  can  only  be  helpful 
in  this  connection  in  so  far  as  it  takes  its 
place  in  such  a  general  movement,  receives  a 
stimulus  from  it,  and  exercises  a  return  in- 
fluence over  it.  But  within  the  whole,  its 
first  task  is  to  get  rid  of  the  illusion  of  finality, 
to  open  up  the  way  for  wider  possibilities, 


TIME   AND   ETERNITY  169 

and  to  restart  the  movement  which  intrinsic 
causes  have  brought  to  a  standstill.  But  this 
task  lent  a  particular  value  to  a  survey  of 
universal  history,  as  in  general,  so  also  in 
particular  in  connection  with  the  problem  of 
persistence  and  change :  it  has  given  us  a 
wider  view,  it  has  revealed  the  most  diverse 
relations  and  demands  which  our  existence 
involves,  it  can  use  the  experience  gained  in 
the  general  movement  of  history  to  point  out 
to  our  own  work  more  definite  lines  of  attack. 
The  general  movement  of  history  has  not 
steadily  followed  one  line  with  regard  to  our 
problem,  but  has  swung  completely  round. 
The  striving  after  persistence  was  predominant 
at  first,  and  established  its  position  more  and 
more  firmly  in  the  course  of  time,  until  its 
own  activity  came  to  a  complete  standstill. 
When  the  modern  period  began,  movement 
gained  the  ascendancy  and  transformed  all 
standards  and  values.  But  the  experience  of 
mankind  left  no  doubt  that  the  exclusive,  or 
even  the  partial  predominance  of  movement 


170  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

gravely  endangers  the  spiritual  character  of 
life :  thus  a  reconciliation  of  the  two  tendencies 
becomes  an  urgent  requirement.  But  this 
reconciliation  is  impossible,  as  is  sufficiently 
shown  by  the  study  of  history,  if  both  meet 
on  the  same  plane  and  are  brought  into  im- 
mediate contact.  For  then  rest  relegates 
movement  to  an  entirely  secondary  position, 
and  condemns  life  to  stagnation,  or  else  move- 
ment makes  itself  master  of  the  whole  sphere 
and  tends  towards  the  break-up  of  all  fixity. 
It  is  impossible  to  escape  this  dilemma  unless 
a  division  and  inner  expansion  of  reality 
takes  place,  which  brings  rest  and  movement 
not  into  an  oppositional  but  into  a  comple- 
mentary relationship.  This  is,  however,  hardly 
attainable  otherwise  than  by  a  sharper  separa- 
tion between  spiritual  life  and  human  existence. 
Spiritual  life  needs  to  be  clearly  thrown  into 
relief  against  human  conditions  in  order  to 
preserve  its  independence  and  transcendence  of 
time,  which  are  indispensable  to  its  substance. 
In  such  a  separation,  to  be  sure,  this  substance 


TIME   AND   ETERNITY  171 

must  not  entirely  disappear  from  the  ken  of 
man  :  it  must  somehow  be  a  part  of  his  own 
nature,  and  it  must  gradually  work  itself  out 
from  the  indeterminateness  of  its  beginning 
and  allow  us  to  take  full  possession  of  it,  if 
this  separation  is  to  give  rise  to  a  particular 
kind  of  life.  It  would  not  be  of  much  help 
to  us  if  we  could  only  open  up  the  depths  of 
our  being  with  difficulty,  and  get  a  glimpse 
of  them  as  in  a  dream ;  we  must  be  able  to 
place  ourselves  immediately  in  them  and  share 
in  their  contents  if  our  life  is  to  undergo 
differentiation,  gain  thereby  an  inner  breadth, 
and  at  the  same  time  overcome  the  opposition 
between  persistence  and  movement.  But  here 
movement  is  also  indispensable,  for  the  appro- 
priation of  these  depths  needs  much  hard  work 
and  toil,  which  is  subject  to  the  conditions  of 
time,  and  can  only  advance  very  gradually. 
But  a  movement  of  this  kind  has  a  fixed 
goal  and  a  history.  It  is  directed  towards  a 
spiritual  substance  and  serves  to  promote  the 
unfolding  of  a  persistent  truth :  it  cannot  be  a 


172  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

mere  succession  of  periods  of  time ;  it  becomes 
a  gradual  movement  away  from  time,  and  a 
progressive  construction  of  a  present  which 
transcends  time.  When  history  is  of  this 
kind,  our  study  of  it  need  not  helplessly  follow 
the  succession  of  periods,  but  can  distinguish 
in  the  contents  of  history  what  belongs  to  the 
mere  temporal  situation  from  that  which  is 
eternal  in  its  nature  and  can  exercise  a 
permanent  influence.  Such  a  study  of  history 
may  lead  to  a  deliverance  from  mere  history, 
and  to  the  revelation  of  a  present  which 
transcends  time. 

But  such  a  treatment  of  history  cannot 
arise  and  make  its  way  unless  we  grant  that 
the  world  and  human  existence  contain  greater 
depths  than  are  evident  at  first  sight.  The 
contradiction,  that  a  truth  which  transcends 
time  appears  and  plays  a  part  in  this  world, 
which  is  in  a  state  of  becoming,  can  only  be 
resolved  if  this  world  has  an  eternal  order 
behind  it,  and,  along  with  everything  in  it 
which  is  spiritual  in  its  nature,  serves  to  pro- 


TIME   AND  ETERNITY  173 

mote  the  unfolding  of  this  order.  If  such 
depths  are  present  in  our  world,  in  human 
creative  efforts  also  we  can  distinguish  a 
spiritual  substance  from  everything  which  is 
merely  temporal,  and  the  apprehension  of 
this  substance  enables  us  to  overcome  mere 
time.  Then,  particularly  in  the  case  of  all 
that  is  great,  we  can  recognize  through  the 
veil  of  time  a  life  and  work  which  transcends 
the  world  and  is  valuable  for  all  ages.  Hardly 
anyone  at  the  present  day  will  profess  his 
adherence  to  the  doctrines  which  such  a  per- 
sonality as  Plato  formulated,  or  the  practical 
proposals  which  he  made.  But  if,  in  spite  of 
this,  we  hold  Plato  in  the  highest  honour,  and 
treat  him  as  a  living  and  powerful  influence 
among  us  at  present,  we  only  do  so  because 
we  recognize  a  creative  power  and  a  particular 
shaping  of  life,  which  may  be  called  Platonic, 
and  which  was  embodied  in  time  in  Plato's 
doctrines  and  proposals,  but  was  by  no  means 
exhausted  in  them.  The  same  is  true  also  of 
general  movements  of  historical  life.  In  many 


174  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

ways  we  are  out  of  sympathy  not  only  with 
the  ideas  and  dogmas  of  early  Christianity, 
but  also  with  the  contemporary  feelings  and 
tone,  but  this  does  not  in  the  least  degree 
exclude  the  possibility  that  the  revelation  of 
spiritual  life  accomplished  by  it  should  pre- 
serve an  indestructible  freshness  of  youth  and 
remain  an  ever-changing  problem  to  the  ages. 
Only,  our  life  must  not  be  lived  on  one  plane 
in  which  temporal  and  eternal,  merely  human 
and  spiritual,  meet  indiscriminately,  but  rather 
there  must  be  an  inner  gradation  in  it,  which 
takes  place  in  virtue  of  the  independence  of 
the  spiritual  life — a  gradation  which  distin- 
guishes as  well  as  re-unites  spiritual  substance 
and  the  human  appropriation  of  it.  As,  in 
order  to  be  fully  possessed  by  man,  this  sub- 
stance must  first  be  acquired,  a  movement  will 
arise  here  which,  however,  will  not  appear  as 
an  aimless  journey  to  an  infinite  distance,  but 
as  a  striving  of  life  to  return  to  itself,  to  raise 
and  consummate  its  existence. 

This    new    way   of   treating    history,   this 


TIME   AND   ETERNITY  175 

esoteric  way,  as  it  might  be  called,  produces 
a  radical  change  of  view,  which  is  also  seen  in 
connection  with  the  problem  of  persistence 
and  movement.  Here,  too,  the  earlier  periods 
must  not  be  regarded  as  a  dead  past,  but  as 
something  which  remains  bound  to  us  by  a 
community  of  work,  and  co-operates  with  us 
towards  the  up-building  of  a  present  which 
transcends  time.  Ancient  thought  could  make 
such  a  point  of  the  persistent  only  because  it 
regarded  the  condition  of  the  world  as  normal 
and  needing  no  essential  change,  and  because 
it  believed  that  life  was  to  be  satisfied  solely 
and  entirely  by  its  own  efforts  in  raising  itself 
to  the  status  of  a  perfect  work  of  art.  Later 
experience  has  shown  that  this  conclusion  was 
premature,  and  that,  in  particular,  human  life 
contains  far  too  many  complications  and  con- 
tradictions to  form  at  once  a  harmonious 
whole.  But,  however  much  these  facts 
compel  us  to  go  beyond  anything  which  the 
ancients  attained  or  attempted,  they  do  not 
invalidate  the  main  motive  of  these  en- 


176  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

deavours.  Faith  in  the  ultimate  rationality 
of  reality  is  the  permanent  basis  of  all  spiritual 
life  and  effort :  otherwise  it  immediately  loses 
its  support  and  is  bound  to  collapse.  Equally 
indestructible  is  the  thought  that  life  has  to 
seek  satisfaction  not  in  the  attainment  of  any 
external  good  but  in  its  own  unfolding  and 
activity.  Although  the  exact  nature  of  the 
activity  may  have  to  be  differently  conceived, 
and  the  goal  may  recede  to  a  far  greater  dis- 
tance, the  fundamental  thought  is  indispens- 
able if  life  is  to  be  completely  independent  and 
really  self-sufficient. 

Christianity  destroyed  this  restful  optimism, 
and  threw  mankind  into  a  state  of  great  agita- 
tion, by  revealing  grave  disorders  in  the  state 
of  the  world  and  life.  The  deepest  root  of 
these  disorders  was  found  in  the  ethical  situa- 
tion, and  the  struggle  against  such  perversions 
was  made  the  cardinal  point  of  life.  It  has 
often  laid  these  disorders  too  directly  to  the 
charge  of  the  individual ;  it  has  applied  ethical 
considerations  too  directly  to  the  whole 


TIME   AND   ETERNITY  177 

breadth  of  the  universe ;  it  has  not  developed 
its  own  power  of  affirmation  to  its  utmost 
capacity,  and,  under  the  influence  of  periods 
of  exhaustion,  it  has  been  too  ready  to 
dictate  its  own  permanent  form.  But  what- 
ever changes  may  be  necessary  in  the  tradi- 
tional order,  the  great  revolution  remains 
irreversible  which  delivered  life  from  the  sway 
of  all  merely  natural  processes,  made  a  real 
history  possible,  and,  by  the  opposition  of 
affirmation  and  negation,  stirred  life  to  its 
foundations.  The  peaceful  and  even  course 
of  human  existence  is  thus  destroyed  for  ever : 
the  new  problems  which  are  raised  can  never 
again  disappear. 

We  saw  how  the  modern  period  began  by 
giving  complete  recognition  to  movement,  but 
we  also  saw  this  exaggerated  to  such  an  extent 
that  movement  was  to  produce  all  the  contents 
of  life.  This  attempt  was  bound  to  miscarry, 
but  such  a  failure  must  not  make  us  forget  for 
a  moment  that  it  was  this  feature  in  life  which 

first   brought   into   prominence   not  only  the 

12 


178  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

incompleteness  of  human  existence  but  also 
its  capacity  for  progress,  and  thus  gave  an 
immense  impulse  to  our  efforts.  This  has 
brought  about  a  new  situation :  we  may 
perhaps  struggle  and  rise  above  it,  but  we 
cannot  simply  treat  it  as  if  it  had  never 
existed. 

All  these  different  facts  call  for  recognition 
at  the  present  day,  and  prevent  all  immediate 
recurrence  to  one  particular  period.  If  they 
are  to  be  reconciled  with  one  another,  not  by 
a  superficial  compromise,  but  by  coming  to  an 
understanding  with  one  another,  we  must  con- 
siderably extend  the  frame-work  of  our  life 
and  re-shape  the  vital  process.  It  is  obvious 
that  this  is  impossible  without  the  vigorous 
co-operation  of  philosophy,  without  the  help 
which  it  can  give  by  opening  up  the  way  and 
sketching  the  country  to  be  traversed.  The 
perplexities  of  life  necessarily  drive  us  back  to 
philosophy  and  set  it  new  problems. 

But  philosophy  will  hardly  be  able  to  help 
in  this  work  if,  in  dealing  with  these  questions, 


TIME  AND  ETERNITY  179 

it  does  not  make  use  of  the  experiences  of  the 
general  movement  of  history  and  gain  there- 
from definiteness  of  direction.  Above  all,  it 
must  seek  for  itself  some  fixed  standpoint, 
and  the  experience  of  history  has  shown  that 
it  can  hope  to  find  this  standpoint  not  in  a 
being  beyond  the  process  of  life  but  only 
in  that  process  itself.  This  process  again  it 
cannot  understand  as  the  evolution  of  a  unit 
confronting  the  world :  it  must  lay  hold  of  the 
life  of  the  world  in  the  very  process  itself. 
Such  a  world-life,  however,  cannot  be  reached 
by  a  freely  ranging  thought,  but  only  by  a 
self-centred  spirituality,  which  partakes  of  the 
essence  of  things  and  moulds  reality.  Such  a 
spirituality  rises  above  the  activities  of  the 
individual  faculties,  and  also  shows  in  great 
detail  the  task  which  thought  has  to  accomplish 
and  the  direction  it  has  to  take.  Hence  philo- 
sophy cannot  turn  immediately  to  the  uni- 
verse ;  it  must  first  strive  to  deepen  life  by 
introspection,  and  then  try  to  discover  connec- 
tions in  life,  and  root  itself  firmly  in  them.  It 


180  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

is  only  after  such  a  strengthening  process  that 
it  is  equal  to  dealing  with  the  world  around  us. 
Since,  however,  these  connections  in  life  are 
not  immediately  apparent  to  us,  but  are  only 
revealed  by  means  of  work  and  struggle  with 
resisting  influences,  it  follows  that  we  are 
involved  in  movement  of  all  kinds,  and  need 
have  no  fear  of  relapsing  into  a  permanent 
state  of  dull  inactivity.  But  if  in  our  search 
we  are  encompassed  by  spiritual  connections 
and  guided  by  spiritual  necessities,  if  the 
spiritual  life  itself  affords  a  firm  foundation 
which  is  at  the  same  time  the  highest  goal  of 
human  endeavour,  and  if  in  this  way  what  is  a 
certain  fact  becomes  at  the  same  time  a  difficult 
task,  then  life,  with  all  its  movement,  will  not 
lose  itself  in  uncertainty;  however  much  it 
may  appear  to  be  struggling  towards  an  un- 
certain and  distant  goal,  it  remains  in  the  end 
occupied  with  itself  and  anchored  in  its  own 
being.  But  if  philosophy  sets  itself  the  task 
of  giving  a  scientific  form  to  its  fundamental 
vision,  and  deducing  a  corresponding  line  of 


TIME  AND  ETERNITY  181 

conduct,  it  is  then  equal  to  dealing  with  the 
opposition  between  rest  and  movement ;  it  can 
then  reconcile  the  eternal  and  the  temporal, 
and  can  use  them  both  to  raise  life  to  a  higher 
level. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  OUTER  WORLD  AND  THE 
INNER  WORLD. 

NOTHING  drives  man  to  philosophy  with  more 
urgency  than  a  contradiction  which  arises 
within  himself  and  makes  him  uncertain  as 
to  his  own  life  and  nature.  We  first  find 
that  we  are  sentient  beings  and  form  part 
of  a  visible  world,  from  which  we  receive  a 
constant  series  of  impressions  and  which  makes 
continual  demands  on  us.  But,  at  the  same 
time,  introspection  teaches  us  that  we  have  no 
direct  experience  of  external  things,  but  only 
of  our  own  subjective  states,  and  that  there- 
fore what  confronts  us  as  an  external  reality 
must  be  evolved  from  within.  Hence  two 
realms  arise  which  cannot  be  directly  co- 

182 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    183 

ordinated,  and  each  strives  to  subordinate  the 
other  to  itself,  and  indeed,  as  far  as  possible,  to 
absorb  it.  The  sensible  world  treats  the  life 
of  the  soul  as  a  by-product,  a  mere  reflection 
and  shadow  ;  the  psychical  world,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  inclined  to  degrade  the  sensible  to  a 
mere  appearance  which  is  purely  subjective. 
According  as  we  decide  in  favour  of  one  or 
the  other,  our  whole  view  of  life  will  be  com- 
pletely altered :  different  goods  will  attract  us, 
different  aims  will  control  us,  and  this  may 
easily  be  exaggerated  to  the  antinomy  that 
what  from  the  one  point  of  view  seems  valu- 
able and  indispensable  is  from  the  other  per- 
verse and  reprehensible.  The  one  regards  the 
increase  of  material  happiness  as  the  supreme 
good,  the  other  looks  upon  it  as  hindering  our 
efforts  to  attain  the  right  goal :  to  the  one, 
absorption  in  the  inner  world  is  the  acme  of 
life ;  to  the  other,  it  is  a  lapse  into  the  vague 
and  the  vacuous.  Where  are  we  now  to  find 
out  what  we  are  and  what  we  are  not  ?  This 
is  a  problem  which  can  never  be  postponed 


184  THE   LIFE    OF  THE   SPIRIT 

and  handed  over  to  the  future.  The  urgency 
with  which  it  calls  for  our  decision  is  no  less 
than  our  certainty  that  we  are  alive  to-day, 
and  wish  to-day  to  attain  satisfaction.  Now 
our  immediate  impressions  bring  us  to  an  irre- 
concilable opposition :  we  must  therefore  get 
beyond  them,  and  what  can  be  of  any  assistance 
to  us  except  philosophy  ? 

In  reality  philosophy  has  taken  up  the 
problem  from  the  beginning,  and  all  the  more 
because  the  form  which  philosophy  assumes 
depends  very  largely  on  the  solution  of  this 
problem.  But  it  is  in  the  modern  period  that 
philosophy  has  devoted  special  attention  to 
the  subject.  For  the  Enlightenment,  with  its 
violent  separation  between  inner  and  outer, 
between  what  is  conscious  and  what  is  ex- 
tended, cleared  the  situation  and  sharpened 
the  contrast.  This  made  a  definite  solution  a 
matter  of  urgency,  and  men  sought  to  find  it 
by  making  the  problem  the  main  subject  of 
investigation  and  comparing  the  different 
solutions  that  were  possible.  It  was  easy  to 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    185 

take  in  these  possibilities  at  a  glance,  and  their 
number  has  not  increased.  The  two  worlds 
seem  to  be  fundamentally  different  as  regards 
their  contents,  and  yet  in  real  life  inseparably 
bound  up  with  one  another.  Which,  then,  is 
to  take  precedence,  the  maintenance  of  the 
specific  character  of  each  or  their  connection 
with  one  another  ?  Where  the  first  alternative 
is  chosen  the  result  is  dualism.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  emphasize  the  connection  of 
the  two,  we  must  press  on  to  a  unity  which 
transcends  the  opposition.  There  are  thus 
three  different  ways  of  reaching  a  solution. 
The  first  regards  the  material  world  as  the 
only  reality,  and  attempts  to  derive  all 
psychical  life  from  it.  On  the  second  view, 
the  psychical  is  the  only  world  that  exists,  and 
contains  the  material  world  in  it.  The  third 
strives  to  attain  a  unity  embracing  both  sides, 
which  are  regarded  as  the  unfolding,  the 
expression,  the  manifestation  of  the  unity. 
Hence,  beside  dualism  we  find  materialism, 
spiritualism,  and  monism  in  the  narrower  sense 


186  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

of  the  word.  By  removing  the  core  of  reality 
from  one  centre  to  another,  each  of  these 
attempts  places  many  things  in  a  clearer  light 
and  co-ordinates  much  that  is  otherwise  left 
incoherent.  But  each  also  meets  with  peculiar 
obstacles  and  must,  in  some  way  or  other,  try 
to  overcome  them.  An  enormous  amount  of 
effort  is  expended  in  doing  so,  but  the  struggle 
still  goes  on  with  varying  success,  and  the 
adherents  of  each  view  show  a  continually 
recurrent  capacity  for  believing  that  they  can 
finally  refute  their  opponents. 

Dualism,  with  its  separation  between  the 
material  and  the  psychical  worlds,  is  particularly 
calculated  to  display  the  specific  character  of 
each.  It  may  boast  of  the  clearness  and 
defmiteness  of  its  conceptions,  but  it  is  flatly 
contradicted  by  a  craving  after  unity,  the 
existence  of  which  is  shown  by  our  immediate 
perception  of  the  close  connection  between 
body  and  soul ;  by  art,  which  joins  the 
material  and  the  psychical  in  intimate  union, 
and  uses  the  one  to  enhance  the  other,  and  by 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD  187 

thought,  which  insists  on  the  ultimate  unity 
of  the  universe.  In  favour  of  materialism 
we  have  our  immediate  impressions  and  the 
stubbornness  of  the  sensible  world ;  its  apparent 
simplicity  and  avoidance  of  all  metaphysics : 
and  the  incontestable  dependenceof  allpsychical 
processes  on  physical  conditions.  But  what 
has  especially  promoted  its  influence  among 
men  is  the  fact  that,  in  the  conflict  of  opinion, 
it  is  thought  to  furnish  the  sharpest  weapon 
against  the  oppression  of  obsolete  systems, 
against  tyranny,  illusion,  and  superstition. 
Materialism,  however,  is  contradicted  by  the 
incommensurability  of  what  proceeds  from  the 
soul,  of  the  unity  and  inwardness  of  psychical 
life,  with  what  takes  place  in  the  domain  of 
matter  and  motion,  and  by  the  building  up 
of  a  specifically  spiritual  life  in  the  sphere 
of  history  and  society.  The  fact  that  the 
external  world  recedes  into  the  background 
and  that  its  existence  becomes  uncertain  as 
the  result  of  epistemological  reflection,  is  also 
opposed  to  materialism.  From  this  point  of 


188  THE  LIFE  OF   THE   SPIRIT 

view  it  is  impossible  to  hide  from  ourselves 
that  nature,  as  we  see  it,  does  not  come  to  us 
from  the  outside  as  a  ready-made  fact,  but 
that  it  starts  from  our  own  thinking,  and, 
under  the  influence  of  our  intellectual  organiza- 
tion, takes  on  the  shape  in  which  it  lies  before 
us.  In  fact,  the  failure  to  recognize  that  we 
do  not  find  the  world  but  mould  it  and  build 
it  up  from  ourselves  as  centres,  threatens  to 
reduce  materialism  to  a  pre-scientific  opinion. 
Spiritualism  pursues  the  opposite  course.  It 
asserts  the  primacy  of  psychical  experience 
and  enforces  its  assertion,  and  it  shows  much 
energy  in  the  logical  working  out  of  its  funda- 
mental conception.  But  it  cannot  succeed 
in  making  clear  the  specific  character  of  the 
sensational  element  which  contrasts  with  the 
purely  inward  experience  of  the  soul.  Even 
if  the  division  is  transferred  to  the  soul  itself, 
it  is  not  thereby  overcome,  but,  rather,  is 
likely  to  become  still  more  intolerable. 

Monism  seems  to  be  the  theory  most  con- 
sistent with  our  knowledge  that  neither  series 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD     189 

can  be  reduced  to  the  other,  but  that,  at  the 
same  time,  they  require  some  sort  of  connec- 
tion ;  for  monism  makes  them  different  but 
parallel  sides  of  a  single  more  essential  process. 
This  provides  for  the  unity  and  also  preserves 
the  difference ;  perfect  equilibrium  seems  to 
have  been  reached  of  valuation  and  attune- 
ment.  The  only  pity  is  that  a  keener 
examination  soon  shows  that  the  opposition 
is  only  hidden  and  put  in  the  background  but 
not  overcome.  The  parallelism  between  the 
two  sides,  which  it  is  sought  to  reach,  can 
never  be  attained.  As  soon  as  we  pursue  the 
fundamental  conception  somewhat  further,  we 
find  that  one  side  comes  into  prominence  and 
relegates  the  other  to  a  secondary  position. 
We  cannot  study  the  historical  forms  of 
monism  without  becoming  aware  that  they 
have  approached,  and  finally  passed  over  into, 
materialism  or  spiritualism,  if  indeed  the  two 
conceptions  have  not  clashed  and  crossed  in 
the  same  thinker.  This  was  the  case  above 
all  with  Spinoza,  whose  Ethics  starts  from  an 


190  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

unmistakably  materialistic  basis  and  reaches 
spiritualistic  conclusions.  Thus  monism  sinks 
back  into  the  very  confusion  which  it  aimed  at 
avoiding. 

We  thus  see  that  a  twofold  opposition  per- 
vades the  whole  problem :  we  dispute  as  to 
whether  there  is  unity  or  multiplicity,  and  we 
dispute  as  to  where  the  unity  is  to  be  found. 
The  one  problem  involves  the  other,  and  the 
dispute  separates  men  further  and  further 
instead  of  bringing  them  together.  How 
often  has  one  theory  "  refuted  "  the  other ! 
But  the  conquered  and  apparently  annihilated 
theory  has  always  risen  up  again  with  re- 
newed power.  Have  all  the  "  refutations  "  of 
materialism  prevented  it  from  being  the  most 
widely  prevalent  view  at  the  present  day,  and 
in  fact  feeling  itself  master  of  the  situation  ? 
Does  not  the  fruitlessness  of  these  learned 
disputes  indicate  that  the  discussions  do  not 
carry  back  the  matter  to  the  point  of  diver- 
gence— that  this,  rather,  lies  further  back  ? 
Another  indication  pointing  to  the  same 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD     191 

conclusion  is  the  fact  that  each  separate  school 
has  claimed  a  triumph  over  its  special  obstacles 
solely  because  it  has  had  special  views  on 
what  was  of  primary  and  what  of  secondary 
importance,  because  its  general  view  involved 
a  definite  system  of  values.  Hence  its  thought 
depended  on  the  position  it  took  up  towards 
reality,  and  this,  again,  on  the  work,  impressions, 
and  experiences  of  the  different  individuals, 
and,  in  fact,  of  whole  nations  and  periods.  In 
the  end  it  is  the  view  which  is  taken  of  the 
whole  of  life  which  lays  down  the  lines  for 
thought  and  determines  its  direction. 

Thus  the  problem  is  transferred  from 
thought  to  life  and  assumes  a  new  aspect. 
For  if  we  ask  whether  life  is  to  take  up  its 
position  outside  or  inside  and  conform  itself 
accordingly,  it  does  not  behove  us  to  interpret 
an  existing  process,  but  first  to  call  the  process 
into  being.  For  our  life  is  not  given  us  as  a 
whole  without  our  co-operation,  but  presents 
itself  at  first  as  a  juxtaposition  and  succession 
of  individual  processes :  the  binding  into  a 


192  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

whole  is  the  work  of  the  thinking  and  active 
spirit ;  it  is  an  attempt,  a  venture,  which  must 
always  justify  itself.  But,  in  the  last  resort, 
such  justification  is  possible,  not  by  any  out- 
ward achievement,  but  only  if  the  attempted 
solution  co-ordinates  all  diversity  and  binds  it 
into  a  single  and  unified  life.  This  neces- 
sarily raises  the  whole  of  life  to  a  higher  level, 
and  enables  us  to  make  completely  our  own 
the  life  which  otherwise  only  streams  past  us. 
It  is  only  such  a  synthesis,  too,  which  can 
overcome  the  indeterminateness  of  the  initial 
situation  and  give  life  a  definite  character. 

There  are  different  ways  of  carrying  out  this 
synthesis  which  our  problem  demands.  In 
the  first  place,  the  world  of  the  senses,  which 
holds  us  so  firmly  in  its  embrace,  which  links 
us  imperiously  to  itself  by  the  obligation  of 
waging  a  perpetual  struggle  for  existence, 
may  become  the  real  scene  of  life.  If  so,  all 
the  peculiar  powers  of  the  human  soul  will 
rank  merely  as  means  and  instruments  to 
bring  ourselves  into  closer  relations  with 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    193 

the  sensible  world,  to  appropriate  it  more 
fully,  to  gain  more  profit  from  it  than  is 
possible  at  the  stage  of  merely  animal  exist- 
ence. But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  life  of 
humanity  in  history  and  society  has  risen 
above  the  level  of  the  senses :  a  non-sensuous 
life  has  appeared  and  continually  develops 
richer  and  richer  ramifications.  Where  the 
synthesis  of  the  whole  seeks  its  controlling 
centre  in  the  new  life,  the  sensible  world  will 
have  to  be  subordinated  and  can  only  gain  any 
value  so  far  as  it  promotes  the  unfolding  of 
this  other  life.  This  is  the  source  of  the  main 
opposition — the  opposition  between  a  natural- 
istic and  an  idealistic  basis  for  life  and  culture. 
But  the  relation  between  idealism  and  natural- 
ism can  assume  two  forms,  and  this  gives  rise 
to  a  further  division.  The  new  life  which 
idealism  stands  for  while  rising  superior  to 
the  sensible  world  may  do  one  of  two  things. 
It  may  yet  seek  to  preserve  friendly  relations 
and  a  close  connection  with  the  sensible  world, 

or  else  it  may  stand  out  in  sharp  relief  against 

13 


194  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

it,  and  venture  on  absolutely  independent  paths 
of  its  own.  The  former  species  of  idealism 
may  be  called  immanent,  the  latter  super- 
natural. Hence  the  struggle  centres  princi- 
pally round  these  three  types,  naturalism, 
immanent  idealism,  and  supernatural  idealism. 
Dualism,  in  the  sense  that  there  are  two 
developments  of  life  which  run  alongside 
without  affecting  one  another,  and  only  come 
into  external  contact,  is  excluded  by  the  crav- 
ing of  life  after  unity ;  and  this  also  excludes 
monism  in  the  sense  that  there  is  a  total  life 
embracing  two  series  running  parallel  courses 
in  complete  independence.  The  nearest 
approach  to  monism  is  made  by  immanent 
idealism,  with  its  endeavour  to  reconcile  the 
two  worlds ;  while  supernatural  idealism,  which 
strives,  on  the  contrary,  to  hold  the  two  worlds 
as  far  as  possible  apart,  is  most  closely  related 
to  dualism.  History,  to  be  sure,  and  in  par- 
ticular the  present  day,  shows  a  large  amount 
of  dualism  in  so  far  as  men,  and  indeed  whole 
periods,  often  distribute  their  efforts  along 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    195 

different  lines,  and  incline  here  to  a  natural- 
istic and  there  to  an  idealistic  mode  of  thought. 
But  this  is  an  error  which  men  commit;  it 
does  not  yield  a  new  type  of  life,  and  need 
only  occupy  our  attention  incidentally. 

Hence  the  spiritual  struggle  goes  on 
between  the  leading  types  which  we  have 
described.  But  the  course  of  the  struggle  is 
not  what  we  might  expect :  it  does  not  start 
from  universal  principles  and  from  them  go 
on  to  details,  but  there  arise  concrete 
syntheses  of  an  absolutely  individual  nature. 
These  syntheses  have,  of  course,  universal 
questions  and  answers  behind  them,  in  fact 
they  radiate  a  world-philosophy  ;  but  above  all 
they  are  characteristic  facts  in  the  life  of  the 
world,  and  it  is  from  their  individuality  and 
actuality  of  achievement  that  they  derive  their 
power  and  significance.  For  it  is  only  because 
they  do  not  merely  pore  and  brood  over  the 
conception  of  reality  but  vigorously  set  them- 
selves to  produce  something  real,  that  they  can 
raise  the  level  of  our  existence,  open  up  depths 


196  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

and  powers  in  the  spiritual  life  which  before 
were  hid,  and  help  us  to  experiences  which  are 
of  lasting  value.  It  is  also  to  be  expected 
that,  so  far  as  there  is  any  systematic  connec- 
tion in  historical  life,  the  later  forms  of  this 
life  should  take  up  and  make  use  of  the  ex- 
periences of  the  earlier,  and  that  thus  the 
experience  of  the  world  should  be  welded  into 
a  unified  whole  and  a  general  level  of  spiritual 
evolution  attained.  Anyone  who  takes  a 
general  view  of  the  whole  process  can  see 
what  particular  form  the  different  syntheses 
have  given  to  the  relation  between  the  inner 
and  the  outer  worlds,  and  what  answer  to  the 
main  problem  has  been  involved  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  synthesis ;  he  can  see  what 
obstacles  they  met  with  and  how  they  came 
to  terms  with  them,  what  complications  they 
fell  into,  and  what  further  steps  they  were  thus 
compelled  to  take  ;  finally,  he  can  see  how  the 
overthrow  of  one  synthesis  helped  the  rise  of 
another,  and  how  the  whole  process  led  to  a 
continual  enlargement  of  the  circle  of  life.  A 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    197 

study  of  this  kind  is  primarily  historical  in  its 
nature,  but  it  need  not  consist  entirely  in  the 
unrolling  of  a  succession  of  processes.  For  if 
the  attempt  is  successful  to  decide,  in  what  has 
been  accomplished,  between  that  which  has 
grown  out  of  special  presuppositions  and 
surroundings  and  that  which  reveals  a  per- 
manent capacity,  and  perhaps  also  permanent 
limitations,  of  the  spiritual  life,  then  co- 
existence may  take  the  place  of  succession ; 
a  present  which  transcends  time  may  stand 
out  in  relief  from  the  course  of  the  ages,  and 
seek  to  maintain  its  hold  on  all  the  real  life 
which  the  different  epochs  have  contributed. 

The  peculiar  position  which  the  modern 
period  takes  up  towards  our  problem  makes  it 
a  matter  of  urgency  to  survey  the  whole  of 
history  hi  the  way  we  have  described,  and 
emphasize  what  is  of  permanent  value.  The 
traditional  systematizations  of  life  gave 
idealism  an  undoubted  ascendency ;  for  them 
it  ranked  as  an  incontestable  and  indeed  self- 
evident  truth.  But  now,  in  opposition  to  this 


198  THE   LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

devotion  to  an  invisible  world,  naturalism  has 
more  and  more  emphasized  the  importance  of 
the  visible  world,  and  is  thus  pressing  idealism 
further  and  further  into  the  background.  In 
addition,  the  onward  movement  of  culture  has 
shown  the  existence  of  much  confusion  within 
idealism  itself,  and  it  has  been  weakened  by 
the  fact  that  the  new  methods  of  studying 
history,  with  their  keener  criticism,  have 
discovered  much  variation  and  inconsistency 
in  the  traditional  idealistic  forms  of  life  which 
were  formerly  accepted  without  hesitation  as 
homogeneous.  But,  in  spite  of  everything, 
there  are  many  obstacles  in  the  way  of  natural- 
ism. For  idealism  has  cut  its  way  too  deeply 
into  our  convictions,  efforts,  and  conceptions, 
to  be  likely  to  succumb  at  once  to  a  bold 
assault.  But,  all  the  same,  we  have  fallen  into 
a  state  of  great  uncertainty ;  the  existence  of 
the  invisible  world  has  become  doubtful  and 
the  visible  world  does  not  satisfy  us.  Such  a 
state  of  uncertainty  as  to  the  direction  which 
life  ought  to  take  must  inevitably  cripple  its 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    199 

power  and  joyousness.  It  is  certain  that  the 
crisis  can  only  be  overcome  by  an  actual 
further  development  of  life ;  and  it  is  equally 
certain  that  this  development  cannot  come 
down  from  heaven  to  us,  but  must  be  set  in 
motion  by  ourselves.  For  this  purpose  we 
cannot  dispense  with  the  active  help  of 
philosophy  in  clearing  the  way,  taking  bear- 
ings, and  acting  as  pioneer.  And  if  the 
immediate  duty  of  philosophy  in  this  connec- 
tion is  to  free  us  from  the  contingency  of  the 
moment  and  to  bring  before  us  human  experi- 
ence in  its  utmost  possible  range,  it  will  un- 
doubtedly be  a  valuable  contribution  to  this 
end  if  we  carry  out  a  critical  scrutiny  of  the 
great  syntheses  of  historical  life,  with  their 
revelations  and  experiences. 

We  naturally  begin  our  journey  through 
history  with  the  solution  which  our  problem 
received  when  Greek  life  was  at  its  culmina- 
tion. Let  us  not  forget  for  a  moment  that 
the  average  life  of  the  time  did  not  attain  this 
height,  but  was  in  many  ways  sharply  opposed 


200  THE  LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

to  it.  This  culminating  period,  however, 
welded  life  into  an  artistic  whole,  which  in 
a  pre-eminent  degree  embodies  for  us  the 
system  of  immanent  idealism.  Here  the 
artistic  element  is,  above  all,  plastic  in  its 
nature:  as  regards  its  spiritual  content,  life 
is  a  transformation  of  reality  into  a  whole 
endowed  with  soul,  and  therefore  well  ordered 
and  clearly  graded.  This  process  of  trans- 
formation has  two  opposite  sources — on  the  one 
hand,  spiritual  activity,  and,  on  the  other, 
nature  as  perceived  by  the  senses ;  but  the 
two  streams  converge  and  unite  to  form  a 
comprehensive  vital  process  which  finds  its 
full  satisfaction  in  itself.  Here  the  spiritual 
is  certainly  the  controlling  element :  it  is  the 
source  of  all  movement,  it  revivifies  and 
imposes  form  on  the  sensible.  The  latter, 
with  its  formlessness,  may  seem  at  first  the 
exact  antithesis  of  the  spiritual,  but  to  a 
deeper  study  it  soon  reveals  itself  as  some- 
thing which  expects  and  struggles  towards  the 
ordering  and  quickening  influence  of  spirit. 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    201 

In  this  way  both  can  meet  as  elements  in  a 
harmonious  life,  and  the  one  can  help  the 
development  of  the  other.  For  even  the 
higher  element,  which  imposes  form  on  the 
lower,  is  not  perfect  and  complete  without  the 
help  of  the  other :  it  is  only  by  the  subjuga- 
tion of  matter  that  it  attains  the  full  measure 
of  its  own  power,  development,  and  perfection. 
This  type  of  life  gives  both  spiritual  life  and 
nature,  to  use  these  abbreviated  expressions, 
a  characteristic  form  and  task,  as  it  thus 
establishes  a  friendly  co-operation  between 
the  two.  The  spiritual,  however  much  it  is 
raised  above  the  sensible,  does  not  sever  itself 
from  the  one  reality  which  embraces  them 
both :  it  does  not  form  for  itself  an  inner  life 
which  neglects  the  world,  but  it  finds  its  task 
in  uniting  and  revivifying  this  world  and 
raising  it  to  a  higher  level.  Hence  in  its 
inmost  nature  it  is  an  incessant  working  and 
creating,  virile  power  and  joyous  activity ;  its 
fundamental  impulse  thus  seems  to  be  towards 
the  undeviating  pursuit  of  the  true  and  the 


202  THE   LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

good.  At  the  same  time,  however,  the 
sensible,  because  of  its  close  connection  with 
the  spiritual,  remains  indispensable  at  all  its 
stages.  Whatever  stimulus  to  the  senses  life 
offers  is  recognized  and  retained  ;  only  it  must 
fit  in  and  subordinate  itself  to  the  whole ;  it 
must  occupy  a  definite  place  and  be  bound  by 
definite  limits ;  but  at  the  same  time  it  will 
be  purified  and  ennobled.  Hence  the  charac- 
teristic and  great  achievement  of  this  type  of 
life  is,  above  all,  that  it  has  brought  together 
into  the  closest  and  most  fruitful  connection 
spirit  and  nature,  form  and  matter,  and  has 
thus  made  the  spiritual  vividly  near  to  us  and 
raised  the  sensible  to  a  higher  level.  Here  all 
oppositions  seem  to  be  reconciled,  all  contra- 
dictions overcome ;  life  is  co-ordinated  into  a 
unified  whole  without  detracting  in  any  way 
from  the  diversity  of  things.  Hence  it  can 
feel  itself  firmly  established  on  its  own  basis 
and  equal  to  dealing  with  all  the  complications 
of  existence. 

Such  a  type  of  life  is  seen  among  the  Greeks 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    203 

in  its  purest  development  in  the  sphere  of 
plastic  art.  Nowhere  else  in  the  whole  range 
of  history  is  a  world  of  spiritual  objects  and 
values  brought  so  near  to  man  in  an  immediate 
present ;  nowhere  else  are  the  visible  and 
invisible  worlds  so  closely  interwoven.  But 
philosophy  also  takes  part  in  this  movement, 
and  does  so  in  the  first  place,  at  least  where  it 
gives  expression  to  the  Greek  mode  of  life  in 
its  purest  form,  by  uniting  the  inner  and  outer 
world,  under  the  control  of  the  former,  into  a 
life  which  rests  upon  itself.  It  is  Aristotle 
who  gives  the  completest  scientific  expression 
to  this  view.  But,  apart  from  the  particular 
contents  of  Greek  philosophy,  we  find  merely 
in  the  mode  of  its  operation  a  unique  recon- 
ciliation between  the  inner  and  the  outer. 
For  in  it  content  and  form  are  not  separated, 
and  thought  is  not  left  painfully  struggling 
with  a  refractory  matter,  but  the  work  of 
philosophy  does  not  cease  until  it  has  over- 
come all  contradiction  and  given  a  clear 
and  exact  representation  of  thought.  Such 


THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

efforts  on  the  part  of  philosophy  have  pro- 
duced at  all  stages  of  the  movement  of 
history  well-marked  types  of  thought,  which 
have  indelibly  impressed  themselves  on  the 
consciousness  of  humanity. 

A  similar  creative  activity  pervades  the 
whole  of  Greek  life.  All  the  inner  life  that 
strives  to  find  outward  expression  succeeds  in 
gaining  complete  embodiment,  and  everything 
that  is  external  has  soul  and  shape  put  into  it. 
It  is  this  above  all  that  gives  rise  to  a  coherent 
spiritual  reality  and  lends  the  life  which  is  here 
unfolded  a  wonderful  power  of  attraction. 
Much  that  is  temporal  and  particular  may  also 
come  in,  but  the  heart  and  core  of  the  whole 
lies  beyond  all  contingency  and  is  capable  of 
exercising  a  permanent  influence.  For  here  the 
primary  phenomenon  of  the  form  makes  itself 
clearly  and  strongly  felt ;  the  fact  is  convincing 
that,  on  a  spiritual  basis,  the  inner  can  mould 
itself  on  the  outer  and  the  outer  can  become 
an  expression  of  the  inner.  This  gives  clear 
expression  to  a  general  experience  of  human 


THE   OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    205 

life,  the  experience  that,  in  life,  the  inner  is 
imperfect  in  many  ways,  and  that  it  can  pass 
from  indefinite  outline  to  definite  shape  only 
if  it  can  find  outward  expression.  In  this 
connection  the  outer,  far  as  it  may  fall  short 
of  being  a  factor  with  equal  rights,  yet  seems 
indispensable  in  order  to  drive  the  inner  to 
definite  decision  and  complete  organization; 
with  its  power  of  stimulation  and  reaction  it 
is  an  important  element  in  the  process  of  life. 
All  artistic  creation  proves  the  truth  of  this, 
and  thereby  furnishes,  as  Goethe  said,  the 
happiest  assurance  of  the  eternal  harmony  of 
existence.  But  the  clearest  proof  of  it  is  the 
indirect  one  from  the  experience  of  humanity. 
For  wherever  form  has  been  despised  and 
neglected,  life  has  soon  degenerated  and  finally 
sunk  into  barbarism.  Form,  with  its  close 
union  of  inner  and  outer,  is  indispensable  in 
order  to  call  forth  spiritual  life,  bring  it  to  full 
power,  and  make  it  penetrate  the  breadth  of 
things.  Hence  it  can  be  easily  understood 
how  it  was  possible  that  form  should  become 


206  THE   LIFE    OF  THE   SPIRIT 

the  central  conception  of  a  cult  of  immanent 
idealism. 

But  just  as  the  creative  efforts  of  the  Greeks 
show  us  this  at  its  highest,  so  their  experience 
also  proves  the  existence  of  many  limitations 
and  complications.  These  are  bound  to  be- 
come objections  and  obstacles  if  the  artistic 
order  described  above  is  taken  as  the  final 
achievement  and  the  whole  of  our  life.  In  the 
first  place,  this  solution  contains  presupposi- 
tions which  are  by  no  means  self-evident.  It 
can  only  form  the  highest  achievement  of  life 
if  the  spiritual  impulse  is  strong,  and,  with  its 
superior  powers,  can  subdue  and  shape  the 
sensible  world ;  if,  in  addition,  the  life  of  the 
senses  is  healthy,  if  its  natural  power  to  strive 
upwards  is  unspoilt,  and  if  it  willingly  fits  into 
the  frame  that  is  provided  for  it ;  and  if,  finally, 
the  movements  from  the  one  to  the  other 
unite  in  ready  and  friendly  fashion  to  form  a 
common  life.  All  together  demand  that  life 
should  attain  a  height  which  is  only  reached 
under  special  circumstances,  and  which  deter- 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    207 

mines  the  general  character  of  existence  only 
in  rare  periods,  and  then  only  for  a  spiritual 
aristocracy. 

We  also  find  complications  in  the  funda- 
mental nature  of  this  artistic  idealism,  so  far 
as  it  claims  the  direction  of  the  whole  of  life. 
The  unification  of  form  and  matter  must  not 
be  a  mere  combination  and  arrangement  of 
them.  Their  efforts  to  come  together  can 
only  yield  a  spiritual  content  if  form  has  a 
soul  and  can  communicate  it  to  the  whole  of 
its  product.  But  whence  is  form  thus  endowed 
with  soul  ?  This  leads  to  the  further  question, 
how  are  we  to  conceive  in  this  connection  of 
the  position  of  spiritual  life  generally  ?  If  it 
possesses  a  superiority  over  the  formative 
process,  and  if,  in  order  to  preserve  the  purity 
of  the  form,  this  superiority  is  vigorously 
emphasized,  then  there  arise  two  worlds,  as 
Plato  clearly  shows  us.  But  this  gives  rise  to 
enormous  complications.  If  form,  however, 
is  to  operate  only  within  the  process,  as  the 
tendency  is,  especially  in  the  case  of  Aristotle, 


208  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

then  it  threatens  to  lose  in  spiritual  content 
and  has  difficulty  in  preserving  its  purity. 
Here  we  recognize  the  Achilles'  heel  of  this 
artistic  idealism.  On  one  alternative  it  pre- 
supposes a  large  amount  of  inner  life,  which  is 
self-contained  and  self-sufficing:  in  this  case 
human  life  can  hardly  find  complete  satisfaction 
in  mere  systematization,  mere  art  becomes  too 
narrow  for  it.  The  second  alternative  is  that 
the  moulding  and  shaping  are  treated  as  com- 
plete ends  in  themselves  :  from  this  it  is  not 
far  to  the  position  that  they  are  a  mere  embel- 
lishment of  existence  as  it  is  given,  a  mere 
refinement  of  life,  and  thus  they  easily  lose 
their  significance.  Thus  the  artistic  solution 
points  beyond  itself  to  a  further  totality  of 
life. 

The  later  ages  of  antiquity  place  this  problem 
before  us  in  broad  outline.  The  sensible  and 
the  spiritual,  which  were  so  closely  united 
when  creative  effort  was  at  its  height,  dissolve 
the  union  and  diverge  further  and  further. 
The  spiritual  tries  more  and  more  to  acquire 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    209 

a  complete  inwardness.  The  result  of  this 
tendency  is  that,  with  the  vigorous  co-opera- 
tion of  philosophy,  first  of  all  morality  and 
then  religion  becomes  independent.  But, 
however  much  depth  of  soul  is  thereby  won, 
and  to  however  large  an  extent  sense-existence 
finally  sinks  to  a  mere  symbol,  the  spiritual  life 
is  able  to  give  no  effective  content  to  the  con- 
dition of  inward  isolation  and  self-sufficiency 
which  it  reaches.  The  main  reason  for  this  is 
that  thought  desires  to  produce  a  reality  from 
itself,  while  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  only  comes 
to  forms  and  relations  which  strive  to  detach 
themselves  from  all  perception,  and  float  over 
reality  like  ill-defined  shadows.  In  this  way, 
to  be  sure,  the  spiritual  wins  a  realm  of  its 
own,  but  its  emptiness  would  be  immediately 
perceived  if  religious  feeling  did  not  in- 
cessantly revivify  and  put  warmth  into  the 
cold  products  of  thought.  But  as  culture 
becomes  increasingly  polished  and  subjective, 
the  sensible  element  loses  more  and  more  the 

robustness  of  an  earlier  period  and  sinks  into 

14 


210  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

feeble  refinement,  and  indeed  inward  corrup- 
tion. It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  the 
spiritual  life  became  hostile  to  the  sensible, 
that  men  not  only  strove  to  repress  the  latter 
as  far  as  possible,  but  that  asceticism  made 
this  repression  the  main  content  of  life.  In 
spite  of  this  change,  the  old  ideal  of  the 
artistic  shaping  of  life  retains  its  influence  in 
many  directions,  and  form  continues  to  rank 
as  a  conception  of  high  value.  But  it  only 
does  so  in  opposition  to  the  main  stream  of 
life,  though  the  opposition  passed  unnoticed, 
and  it  cannot  alter  the  fact  that  the  classical 
harmony  of  the  two  worlds  is  transformed  in 
the  end  into  a  sharp  division.  The  whole 
course  of  Greek  history  presents  us  with  the 
spectacle  of  the  gradual  retreat  of  the  sensible 
world  before  the  spiritual.  In  the  beginning 
the  sensible  world  took  complete  possession  of 
man,  but  the  craving  after  spiritual  self-pre- 
servation drives  him  to  the  elaboration  of  a 
super-sensible  world.  It  was  not  Christianity, 
and  certainly  not  the  modern  period,  which 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    211 

first  gave  rise  to  the  idea  of  a  purely  inward 
life :  the  Greeks  won  it  for  the  general  system 
of  culture  by  painful  work  and  experience,  and 
thereby  prepared  the  ground  for  new  systema- 
tizations  of  life. 

Christianity  also  turns  away  from  the 
sensible  world,  but  it  succeeds  in  giving  this 
self-centred  and  self-sufficing  inner  life  a  great 
work  to  do  and  a  rich  content.  It  ac- 
complishes this  when,  in  unmistakable  con- 
nection with  later  Judaism,  it  transfers  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  life  from  the  intellectual 
and  cosmic  to  what  is  ethical  and  personal. 
The  result  is  a  complete  transformation,  since 
the  fundamental  relation  of  human  life  is  no 
longer  the  relation  to  a  visible  or  invisible 
universe,  but  the  relation  to  a  perfect  Spirit 
who  is  above  the  world.  In  this  way  new 
aims  and  standards  are  revealed  which  bring 
the  whole  of  life  face  to  face  with  tasks  of 
great  importance.  The  object  to  be  aimed 
at  is  union  with  this  perfect  Spirit,  a  demand 
for  which  the  existing  condition  of  humanity 


212  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

is  not  only  inadequate,  but  with  which  it 
even  appears  to  be  in  direct  contradiction. 
To  end  this  conflict,  which  involves  the  whole 
of  the  soul,  now  becomes  the  supreme 
necessity.  This  is  impossible  if  we  start  from 
the  existing  condition  of  the  soul ;  for  this 
purpose  a  new  and  purer  nature  is  needed, 
and  hence  the  task  is  raised  above  all  human 
capacity.  Such  a  necessity  for  what  is  im- 
possible must  bring  about  a  huge  convulsion. 
But  if  the  conflict  grows  more  acute, 
Christianity  shows  a  way  of  overcoming  it; 
it '  confidently  preaches  a  redeeming  and 
sanctifying  love,  which  frees  man  from  all 
perplexity,  enables  him  to  share  in  the  per- 
fection of  divine  life,  and  vouchsafes  him  full 
jblessedness. 

On  this  scheme  the  inner  life  itself  contains 
great  contrasts,  movements,  and  experiences. 
The  utmost  extremes  of  absolute  despair  and 
certain  assurance  are  at  work  and  intensify 
one  another.  The  tension  of  the  whole  is 
increased  by  the  conviction  that  the  trans- 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD     213 

formation  of  human  life  is  not  a  mere  private 
concern  of  man,  but  that  the  refusal  of  it 
signifies  a  revolt  against  the  divkie  will,  a 
violation  of  a  sacred  world-order,  and  there- 
fore involves  the  disintegration  of  man. 
Hence  this  life  will  necessarily  feel  that  it  is 
the  heart  and  core  of  the  whole  of  reality ;  it 
will  regard  all  other  life  as  a  mere  setting, 
and  will  grant  it  no  independent  significance. 
At  the  same  time  it  must  uphold  its  complete 
superiority  over  all  nature.  It  not  only 
understands  nature  around  us  as  a  work  of 
spirit:  it  is  more  important  that,  within 
man,  it  puts'  on  a  lower  level  all  activity 
which  proceeds  from  merely  natural  powers, 
and  stringently  prohibits  its  entry  into  the 
sphere  of  moral  action.  Thus  a  thinker  like 
Augustine,  who  throws  the  oppositions  into 
sharp  relief,  could  regard  ancient  morality 
nof  only  as  insufficient  but  as  a  perversion 
(virtutes  veterum  splendida  vitia}. 

Hence  the  life  which  arises  on  this  ethico- 
religious  basis  is  of   a    strictly  supernatural 


214  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

character.  Here  the  spiritual  life  has  abso- 
lutely no  need  of  being  supplemented  by 
nature,  but  it  contains  its  task  as  well  as  its 
power  within  itself.  But  the  sensible  is  not 
therefore  declared  to  be  bad  and  treated  as  an 
enemy.  Where  this  has  taken  place  within 
Christianity,  it  is  in  contradiction  to  its  funda- 
mental tendency.  For  on  this  point  Christi- 
anity is  clearly  and  consciously  at  variance  with 
the  later  ages  of  antiquity :  to  it  the  decisive 
opposition  is  not  that  between  the  sensible 
and  the  supersensible,  but  that  between  good 
and  evil.  The  root  of  evil  is  not  a  deficiency 
in  spiritual  capacity,  but  moral  guilt.  But  the 
sensible  remains  a  subordinate  sphere,  which 
has  to  be  completely  subservient  to  the  ends 
of  the  spirit :  it  possesses  value  not  in  itself 
but  through  the  part  of  the  higher  order  to 
which  it  gives  expression,  or  through  what  it 
accomplishes  for  the  higher  order.  Hence  it 
can  never  form  the  sole  domain  of  human 
endeavours,  but  always  points  beyond  itself, 
and,  with  all  its  palpability,  as  far  as  the  soul 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    215 

of  man  is  concerned   it  remains  an  external 
world. 

We  shall  see  what  dangers  and  complications 
are  produced  by  the  unfolding  of  this  system 
of  life  in  the  sphere  of  humanity  and  under 
special  historical  conditions.  At  the  same 
time  we  shall  have  to  examine  whether,  from 
the  very  beginning,  the  whole  is  not  burdened 
with  difficult  problems.  But  before  we  discuss 
these  questions  we  must  fully  recognize  the 
primary  phenomenon  of  the  spiritual  life,  which 
here  unfolds  itself.  The  spiritual  life  here 
discovers  in  itself  immeasurable  depths,  sharp 
contrasts,  mighty  tasks.  If  it  formerly  ranked 
as  of  incontestable  worth  throughout  its  whole 
existence,  there  now  arises  in  it  an  inner 
division,  a  cleavage,  the  overcoming  of  which 
becomes  the  task  of  tasks.  Man's  own  nature 
thus  becomes  his  chief  problem,  and  this  means 
that  his  life  is  withdrawn  from  external 
activities  and  principally  occupied  with  itself. 
The  purely  inward  life  thus  gains  independence 
and  a  completely  satisfying  content.  At  the 


216  THE  LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

same  time  a  change  takes  place  in  the  value 
put  upon  action  in  that  it  does  not  need  any 
external  results  to  make  it  complete,  but  finds 
that  its  main  business  lies  in  the  purely  inward 
life.  Then  only  does  the  internal  disposition 
cease  to  be  a  dead  accompaniment  and  become 
an  active  process ;  thus  men  are  freed  from 
the  bondage  which  may  come  not  only  from 
external  relations  but  from  the  unalterableness 
of  the  nature  of  the  soul.  A  life  which  is  based 
upon  freedom  of  action  rises  above  all  merely 
natural  processes ;  a  struggle  commences 
between  freedom  and  fate.  The  independence 
which  is  thus  won  not  only  seeks  to  make  man 
master  of  his  own  nature,  but  it  prevents  him 
from  accepting  his  sense  -  existence  as  an 
assigned  destiny  and  from  yielding  to  it  with- 
out a  struggle.  It  calls  upon  him  to  master 
the  life  of  the  senses,  and  insists  on  shaping  it 
conformably  to  the  ends  of  the  spirit.  The 
importance  of  this  is  shown  in  particular  by 
the  beginnings  of  Christianity.  For  in  taking 
up  with  courage  and  confidence  the  struggle 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    217 

against  a  weak  sensuousness  pervading  all  the 
relations  of  life,  it  strengthened  and  consoli- 
dated men  against  the  disintegration  which 
threatened  to  carry  all  before  it,  and,  by  in- 
creasing their  self-confidence,  prepared  the  way 
for  a  movement  of  ascent. 

In  the  actual  world  of  history  these  trans- 
formations, these  deepening  and  liberating 
movements,  have  always  produced  only  inade- 
quate results :  in  the  consciousness  of  mankind 
they  are  liable  to  be  temporarily  obscured  and 
forgotten.  But  they  cannot  be  simply  can- 
celled ;  they  have  produced  so  much  change 
in  life  on  its  inner  side  that  any  further  move- 
ment of  humanity  must  come  to  terms  with 
them.  It  is  impossible  for  man  to  resume 
without  question  the  earlier  naive  relations  in 
which  he  stood  to  his  environment  and  his  own 
nature,  and  to  find  full  satisfaction  in  their 
development.  Where  the  working-out  in 
detail  of  this  ethico-religious  system  of  life 
provokes  to  contradiction,  it  often  happens 
that  the  fundamental  thought  of  the  deepen- 


218  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

ing  and  ethical  awakening  of  life  maintains  its 
position  all  the  more  strongly.  Where  the 
answers  no  longer  receive  assent  the  questions 
remain.  They,  too,  are  forces  which  drive  life 
in  a  definite  direction  and  give  it  a  specific 
character.  Hence  the  new  systematization  of 
life  which  we  owe  to  Christianity  not  only 
cannot  be  erased  from  history  but  remains  one 
of  its  leading  features :  in  fact,  as  revealing  a 
depth  which  controls  all  the  rest  of  life,  it  is 
above  all  the  changes  of  history.  It  continues 
to  work  openly  or  in  secret  throughout  the 
ages,  and  this  proves  that  it  belongs  to  that 
timeless  present  which  is  the  subject  of  our 
investigation. 

But  all  the  truth  and  greatness  of  Chris- 
tianity have  not  prevented  it  from  being  a 
subject  of  constant  strife.  It  is  not  only  from 
outside  that  it  has  continually  experienced  the 
severest  attacks,  unless  these  have  been  sup- 
pressed with  an  iron  hand,  but  it  has  been 
torn  with  internal  dissensions  which  have 
extended  beyond  the  domain  of  conceptions 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    219 

to  the  shaping  of  life.  Everything  indicates 
that  the  main  tendency,  when  it  is  worked  out 
in  detail,  contains  a  complication ;  we  shall 
see  that  it  is  just  the  relation  between  the 
inner  and  the  outer  worlds  which  is  here  in 
question.  Christianity  stands  for  a  new  world, 
as  opposed  to  that  which  immediately  surrounds 
men,  and  it  cannot  give  up  either  of  these 
worlds ;  a  "  monistic "  Christianity  is  an 
absurdity  which  can  only  please  a  confused 
thinker.  But  to  maintain  the  existence  of 
two  worlds  still  leaves  it  an  open  question 
how  they  are  related  in  detail  to  each  other : 
the  particular  point  is,  how  the  world,  which 
is  on  the  one  hand  transcendent  and  superior 
to  man,  can  become  his  own,  and  come  into 
close  touch  with  his  soul.  It  is  certainly  part 
of  the  fundamental  conception  of  Christianity 
to  make  the  supramundane  order  powerfully 
operative  in  our  world  as  well,  but  the  relations 
of  one  to  the  other  are  not  completely  adjusted. 
The  supramundane  order  remains  in  the  first 
place  a  Beyond,  which  exists  alongside  our 


220  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

world  and  is  bound  to  lead  us  away  from  it 
by  drawing  us  to  itself.  But,  at  the  same 
time,  instead  of  creating  a  present  which 
transcends  time,  it  remains  too  much  a  matter 
of  mere  expectation,  a  hope  to  be  realized  in 
the  future.  This  not  only  leads  to  the  greatest 
confusion  in  particular  directions,  but  it  gives 
the  whole  of  life  a  character  which  is  bound  to 
arouse  doubt  and  opposition.  Since  the  trans- 
cendent Spirituality  affects  us  here  chiefly  as 
an  order  working  upon  us  from  the  Beyond, 
our  whole  life  receives  a  specifically  religious 
character,  and  is  thereby  driven  into  a  channel 
which  may  satisfy  particular  periods  but  which 
is  too  narrow  to  be  permanent.  Christianity 
was  established  in  an  age  which  was  wanting 
in  vigorous  vitality,  and  was  chiefly  intent  on 
gaining  a  safe  harbour  of  refuge.  But  it 
seemed  that  this  could  be  found  only  in 
opposition  to  the  confused  activity  of  the 
world,  in  a  supernatural  order.  The  sharper 
the  division  became,  the  more  certain  men 
felt  of  themselves  and  the  stronger  was  the 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    221 

position  of  the  divine  revelation,  which  came 
to  us  only  by  a  miracle.  It  would  be  irrelevant 
to  treat  of  the  objections  raised  by  later  ages, 
when  vitality  was  at  a  higher  level,  but  it  is  of 
course  important  to  consider  how  the  relation 
between  the  inner  and  the  outer  worlds  had  to 
suffer  through  this  tendency. 

Above  all,  there  arises  a  sharp  opposition 
which  runs  through  the  whole  history  of 
Christianity,  and  finds  expression  particularly 
in  the  shaping  of  creeds  :  we  allude  to  the 
opposition  between  an  inwardness  which  with- 
draws from  the  visible  world,  and  an  adapta- 
tion to  this  world,  with  the  accompanying 
danger  of  an  intrusion  of  the  sensible  into  the 
spiritual.  Where  the  inner  life  springs  from 
the  relationship  to  a  transcendent  Deity,  and 
finds  its  chief  task  in  the  development  of  this 
relationship,  it  is  easy  for  anyone  to  be  in- 
different to  his  earthly  environment,  to  face 
all  injustice  in  silence,  with  patience  and 
resignation,  to  make  no  attempt  either  to 
grapple  with  the  irrationality  in  the  world, 


222  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

or  to  raise  it  to  an  essentially  higher  level. 
Can  we  deny  that  the  modern  period  has 
intervened  in  the  general  relations  of  life  much 
more  powerfully  and  helpfully  than  Christi- 
anity, though  the  latter  dominated  for  so  long 
the  souls  of  men  ?  Who  abolished  slavery, 
who  carried  through  a  universal  system  of 
popular  education,  who  has  attacked  the  social 
problem  on  a  grand  scale  ?  The  inwardness 
which  we  have  described,  with  all  its  delicacy 
of  feeling,  was  too  feeble  and  too  aloof  from 
the  world  to  exercise  any  power  of  penetrating 
and  organizing  it.  Where  spiritual  emotion 
does  not  somehow  turn  into  activity  it  runs  a 
great  risk  of  becoming  an  inert  brooding  over 
things,  a  purely  subjective  feeling,  an  empty 
mood.  It  does  so,  of  course,  only  where  the 
seriousness  of  the  religious  life  has  faded  away, 
a  pre-eminent  example  of  which  is  the  purely 
intellectual  Christianity  of  modern  times. 
And  even  where  men  are  willing,  they  are 
often  very  helpless  in  dealing  with  the  world  : 
nor  can  we  deny  the  further  fact  that,  in  the 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    223 

life  which  is  ruled  by  Christianity,  the  depth  of 
soul  and  the  tenderness  of  the  fundamental 
experience  have  often  been  unsuccessful  in 
preventing  great  barbarity,  and  in  fact 
brutality,  of  outward  action.  Or  were  not 
the  Inquisition  and  trials  for  witchcraft  carried 
on  in  the  name  of  Christianity  ?  There  is  thus 
a  dualism  of  life,  which  cannot  be  permanently 
endured. 

But  in  Christianity  itself  there  was  vigorous 
opposition  to  the  movement  towards  an  in- 
wardness superior  to  the  world.  This  move- 
ment would  probably  have  made  Christianity 
a  religion  of  mere  individuals,  if  from  the 
beginning  its  efforts  had  not  been  directed 
towards  establishing  a  kingdom  of  the  new 
life,  and  helping  the  whole  of  mankind.  Even 
on  the  ground  of  history  nothing  distinguishes 
it  more  from  other  religions  than  the  forma- 
tion of  a  church  that  is  definitely  marked  off, 
and  claims  to  embrace  the  whole  of  humanity. 
But  this  enterprise  could  not  be  carried  out 
without  taking  into  consideration  the  general 


224  THE   LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

situation,  and  also  the  opinions  and  interests 
of  men.  If  now  this  situation  was  accepted  as 
essentially  unalterable,  it  was  naturally  im- 
possible to  avoid  accommodation  to  it  in 
many  ways,  and  the  consequent  intrusion  of 
sensible  elements  into  the  world  of  religion. 
It  is  thus  emphatically  the  case  not  so  much 
that  a  new  world  is  formed  as  that  the  old 
world  and  its  modes  of  thought  are  trans- 
ferred to  the  domain  of  religion.  How  sen- 
suous are  the  ideas  of  a  God  who  is  provoked 
to  anger  by  sin,  and  must  be  appeased  by 
some  sort  of  atonement !  How  sensuous  are 
the  ideas  of  reward  and  punishment,  of  pur- 
gatory, of  heaven  and  hell,  and  the  whole  body 
of  eschatological  doctrine  1  In  addition,  the 
spiritual  exhaustion  at  the  beginning  of  Chris- 
tianity, which  has  been  often  alluded  to,  was 
bound  to  strengthen  the  sensuous  element. 
Men  wished  to  be  perfectly  sure,  at  any  cost 
and  without  any  risk  to  themselves,  of  the  full 
reality  of  the  spiritual,  and  so  they  insisted  on 
a  sensuous  embodiment  in  order  to  be  absol- 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    225 

utely  certain  of  it.  Hence  they  demanded 
facts  which  appealed  to  their  senses,  over- 
powering impressions,  visible  pledges,  such  as 
we  find  in  the  clearest  form  in  the  conception 
of  the  sacrament.  For  the  sensible  is  here 
much  more  than  a  mere  means  and  instru- 
ment ;  it  belongs  to  the  essence  of  the  matter, 
and  the  communication  of  divine  powers  is  so 
closely  bound  up  with  it  that  a  man's  own 
disposition  in  the  matter  may  easily  become 
a  secondary  consideration  (sacramenta  non 
solum  significant,  sed  causant  gratiam).  There 
is  the  closest  connection  between  this  and  the 
fact  that,  the  more  the  consciousness  of  his 
own  weakness  makes  man  look  for  deliver- 
ance solely  to  supernatural  grace,  the  more 
religious  it  may  appear  to  deny  him,  as  far  as 
possible,  all  activity  of  his  own,  and  to  repre- 
sent the  new  life  merely  as  "  streaming  into  " 
him  as  into  a  passive  vessel.  Hence  the 
inclination  spreads  to  make  sure  of  spiritual 
processes  by  binding  them  to  sensible  forms, 

to  give  to  outward  and  tangible  performances 

15 


226  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

a  value  which  is  in  direct  contradiction  to  the 
efforts  of  Christianity  after  inwardness.  The 
final  result  is  a  materialising  of  the  spiritual 
life,  which  leads  at  the  same  time  to  a 
suppression  of  all  free  movement. 

A  similar  problem  also  appears  both  in  the 
conception  of  the  Church  and  in  its  activity. 
This  activity  is  in  the  interests  of  the  kingdom 
of  God  ;  its  object  is  to  subordinate  all  external 
processes  to  the  ends  of  the  inner  world.  But 
it  cannot  meet  with  any  success  without  com- 
ing to  terms  with  the  world  as  it  is,  and 
making  use  of  the  means  which  it  provides. 
The  result  is  that  it  falls  under  the  influence 
of  this  world,  and  may  be  overborne  by  it  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  main  aim  is  completely 
obscured. 

We  thus  see  the  opposition  in  its  fullest 
development :  we  have  on  the  one  side  an 
inwardness  withdrawn  from  the  world,  and, 
on  the  other,  the  inner  overborne  by  the  outer. 
Though  there  are  constant  endeavours  within 
Christianity  to  effect  some  sort  of  reconcilia- 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    227 

tion,  the  confusion  lies  too  far  back  to  permit 
of  anything  but  a  tolerable  compromise  being 
attained.  Do  we  not  see  in  Christianity,  with 
particular  clearness  at  the  present  day,  the  op- 
position between  a  freely  ranging  subjectivity 
and  a  sense-bound  organization  ? 

The  main  trend  of  modern  life  puts  the 
problem  of  the  outer  and  the  inner  worlds  in 
a  very  different  light.  The  stream  of  life  is 
once  more  directed  upon  the  world,  but  now 
the  main  point  is  not  merely  to  contemplate  it 
but  to  lay  hold  of  it  vigorously,  to  get  full 
possession  and  enjoyment  of  it.  The  inward- 
ness that  has  been  won  is  not  by  any  means 
given  up  in  principle,  but  is  now  expected  to 
communicate  itself  to  the  whole  of  reality, 
and  in  this  communication  to  increase  its  own 
power  and  joyousness.  We  saw  how  the  main 
task  of  modern  times  lies  in  the  enhancement 
of  life,  and  how  this  enhancement  does  not 
serve  an  end  beyond  itself,  but  itself  becomes 
more  and  more  its  own  completely  satisfying 
goal.  But  as  the  carrying  out  of  this  process 


228  THE   LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

makes  it  necessary  that  diversity  should  be 
reduced  to  unity  and  the  oppositions  should 
show  a  tendency  towards  reconciliation,  the 
inner  and  the  outer  worlds  cannot  remain 
separate ;  the  life  of  the  whole  continually 
directs  them  towards  one  another ;  the  one  can 
develop  its  power  and  reach  its  highest  level 
only  in  contact  with  the  other.  Although  they 
may  thus  form  different  starting-points,  they 
approach  one  another  and  become  more  and 
more  closely  interwoven,  and  the  advance  of 
the  process  of  life  may  here  be  regarded  as 
a  progressive  overcoming  of  the  opposition. 
The  supersensible  strives  to  unite  with  the 
sensible  in  order  to  win  its  full  power  in  the 
movement  of  the  latter.  Thus  we  see  that  all 
the  ideas  and  principles  which  have  emerged 
in  modern  times  are  filled  with  a  fiercer  long- 
ing to  master  the  sensible  world  and  penetrate 
to  its  furthest  ramifications.  Only  by  doing 
so  do  they  seem  to  step  from  the  realm  of 
shadows  into  clear  and  full  reality,  and  at  the 
same  time  demonstrate  their  truth.  Hence 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    229 

the  time  for  a  timid  severance  from  the 
sensible  is  now  past,  nor  can  the  latter  any 
longer  be  despised.  From  the  other  side, 
modern  life  and  work  enable  the  sensible  to 
appropriate  in  an  increasing  degree  the  features 
of  the  spiritual,  and  they  bring  it  nearer  and 
nearer  to  the  spiritual.  Nature  renounces  its 
old  palpability ;  it  no  longer  lies  before  us  as 
a  realm  of  impenetrable  matter,  but  is  trans- 
formed into  a  web  of  forces  and  relations, 
held  together  by  a  causal  order  accessible  to 
thought.  In  this  system  of  life,  whose  funda- 
mental principles  are  the  increase  of  power 
and  constant  progress,  material  goods  also 
appear  in  a  higher  light  than  at  earlier 
periods,  when  their  pursuit  was  thought  to 
be  the  outcome  of  a  lower  way  of  thinking. 
For  now  they  become  indispensable  means  to 
the  development  of  human  power  and  the 
overcoming  of  obstacles :  it  is  not  so  much 
sensuous  enjoyment  as  the  increase  of  power, 
the  mastery  over  things — and  thus  something 
supersensuous — which  makes  them  valuable. 


230  THE   LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

If  one  thus  grows  by  means  of  the  other,  it 
seems  that  there  is  only  a  single  world  and  a 
single  life  encompassing  man,  and  the  tendency 
towards  union  which  we  have  described  seems 
completely  to  reconcile  idealism  and  natural- 
ism. Thus  the  division  which  opened  in  front 
of  Christianity  seems  to  be  happily  overcome. 
The  systematization  of  activity  into  work, 
in  which  the  modern  period  considerably  sur- 
passes earlier  epochs,  was  of  great  significance 
for  this  result.  For  the  modern  period  has 
made  vigorous  attempts  to  free  human  action 
from  all  subjectivity,  and  to  connect  it  closely 
with  its  objects :  it  forms  great  complexes  of 
work,  recognizes  in  them  their  peculiar  laws 
and  motives,  and  lets  these  latter  control 
human  action.  While  man  thus  identifies 
himself  with  the  special  necessities  of  things, 
the  latter  come  incomparably  nearer  to  him 
and  grow  to  be  parts  of  his  own  nature.  In 
the  world  of  human  work  the  inner  and  the 
outer  unite,  in  the  same  way  as  force  and  its 
object,  to  form  a  single  whole.  Thus  the 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD     231 

progress  of  work  is  at  the  same  time  the 
establishment  of  man  in  an  undivided  world: 
it  means  that  the  idea  of  unity  has  made  a 
further  advance. 

This  consciousness  of  belonging  to  a  single 
world  dominates  the  convictions  of  the  modern 
man,  and  gives  him  an  assured  sense  of  life. 
But  the  greater  the  pride  and  joy  which  are 
manifested  in  the  striving  after  unity,  the 
greater  must  be  the  resultant  confusion,  if, 
in  the  details  of  the  systematization  within 
modern  life  itself,  different,  and  indeed  con- 
trary, life-currents  are  formed,  which  that  life 
cannot  bring  together  with  the  means  at  its 
disposal ;  if  work,  though  it  strains  its  powers 
to  the  utmost,  cannot  fulfil  a  requirement 
which  is  emotionally  of  the  utmost  urgency. 
This  comes  about  as  follows.  The  chief  in- 
strument for  carrying  out  this  effort  has  been 
found  by  modern  life  in  science,  science  of  the 
analytical  and  exact  character  which  has  been 
developed  precisely  in  modern  times.  It  was 
of  such  scientific  knowledge  that  it  could  first 


232  THE   LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

be  truly  said,  knowledge  is  power.  But 
science  could  not  clearly  and  distinctly  grasp 
either  psychical  life  or  nature  without  giving 
them  an  independence  of  one  another  and 
recognizing  that  each  possessed  a  unique 
nature  of  its  own.  This  meant  a  complete 
breach  with  the  former  method,  which  found 
no  difficulty  in  a  mingling  of  both  realms. 
Though  from  the  ethical  and  religious  point 
of  view  the  inner  was  raised  above  the  outer, 
the  earlier  scientific  conception  of  the  soul  was 
overladen  with  many  sensuous  images.  No 
difficulty  was  felt  in  representing  sensuous 
operations,  impressions,  influences  as  entering 
immediately  into  the  soul,  nor,  on  the  other 
hand,  in  representing  volitions  as  extending 
into  the  outer  world  and  altering  its  condition. 
In  addition,  the  soul  was  defined  not  so  much 
by  any  positive  attribute  as  by  its  contrast 
with  the  sensible,  and  hence  it  easily  came  to 
be  popularly  conceived  as  something  sensible, 
though  of  a  refined  and  gaseous  nature.  On 
the  other  hand,  nature  seemed  to  be  controlled 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    233 

by  psychical  forces,  guided  by  ends,  moved 
by  impulses  and  inclinations ;  it  might  be 
regarded  as  forming  a  living  whole  and  exer- 
cising creative  power  from  within.  A  con- 
fusion like  this,  which  involved  the  constant 
interpenetration  of  the  two  series,  hindered  all 
precise  explanation,  and  hence  the  desire  for 
such  explanation  drove  men  to  separate  com- 
pletely one  realm  from  the  other,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  demand  a  psychological 
explanation  of  everything  psychical  and  a 
physical  explanation  of  everything  natural. 
This  separation  was  ably  and  vigorously 
carried  out  by  the  leading  spirits  of  the 
Enlightenment :  as  they  conceived  the  essen- 
tial characteristic  of  the  soul  to  be  conscious- 
ness and  thought,  and  that  of  the  material 
world  to  be  extension  in  space,  the  two  were 
regarded  as  irreconcilably  disparate.  Here  a 
realm  of  souls  with  their  indivisibility,  there  a 
realm  of  infinitely  divisible  masses  with  their 
motions.  As  regards  their  relations,  the  two 
realms  could  no  longer  be  understood  as 


234  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

communicating  with  one  another.  According 
to  the  new  conception,  a  stimulus  comes  from 
one  side  and  releases  on  the  other  some  sort 
of  activity :  in  its  working,  however,  each 
realm  kept  to  itself  and  was  closed  against 
every  interference  from  without. 

But  these  movements  did  not  by  any  means 
remain  confined  to  the  realm  of  mere  theory : 
they  broke  forth  and  became  mighty  forces 
striving  to  dominate  the  whole  of  life,  and 
thus  inevitably  came  into  the  sharpest  col- 
lision with  one  another.  In  thought  the 
thinking  subject  begins  to  feel  himself  the 
creator  of  a  world.  For  when  thought,  as  a 
productive  faculty,  develops  an  inexhaustible 
diversity  out  of  itself — mathematics  affords 
the  clearest  example — it  does  not  thereby  lose 
itself  in  things ;  it  preserves  an  unassailable 
superiority ;  from  all  its  work  of  production 
it  always  returns  again  to  itself,  and  thereby 
proves  the  complete  independence  of  the 
human  spirit.  Just  as  the  thinking  subject 
seems  to  be  the  Archimedean  point  which 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    235 

affords  a  fixed  position  in  face  of  the  chaos  of 
phenomena,  the  next  task  is  to  include  the 
whole  of  reality  in  the  process  which  so  arises. 
Thought  now  becomes  both  the  motive  force 
and  the  measure  of  all  things  :  by  vigorous 
self-concentration  it  discovers  in  itself  an 
original  endowment  of  eternal  truths,  then 
transforms  these  into  postulates,  and  applies 
them  to  the  existing  condition  of  things. 
What  contradicts  these  truths  cannot  stand ; 
what  corresponds  to  them  will  be  illuminated 
and  raised  to  a  much  higher  level.  An 
activity  of  this  kind  not  only  works  on  things 
from  the  outside,  but  penetrates  into  them 
and  seeks  to  make  out  of  them  something 
quite  different  from  what  they  appear  to  our 
immediate  impressions.  For  everything  sen- 
sible here  becomes  a  mere  appearance,  an 
expression  and  instrument  of  a  content  of 
thought :  all  reality  seems  to  be  reduced  to 
thought-elements,  and  we  seem  to  promote  its 
ultimate  truth  when  we  raise  it  to  the  realm 
of  thoughts  and  ideas.  On  this  view  the 


THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

sensible  can  only  be  regarded  as  a  residue  on 
which  the  transforming  work  of  thought  has 
not  yet  been  fully  successful,  but  it  is  not 
granted  an  independent  existence  as  opposed 
to  thought. 

The  essential  attributes  of  the  work  of 
thought  thus  become  the  ruling  characteristics 
of  the  whole  of  civilized  life.  The  universal 
and  timeless  truth  ascertained  by  this  work 
possesses  an  unassailable  superiority  both  over 
what  the  sensible  world  exhibits  and  over 
what  has  been  made  of  man  by  particular 
historical  experiences.  Man's  greatness  and 
worth  do  not  lie  in  wrhat  he  is  as  a  natural 
being,  nor  in  what  he  is  as  belonging  to  a 
particular  nation  or  a  particular  religion,  but 
in  what  he  is  as  a  reasonable  being.  The 
development  of  his  rational  nature  produces 
a  culture  which  is  rational  and  universal 
as  contrasted  with  a  culture  dependent  on 
history ;  in  particular  it  rejects  all  sensation- 
alism and  becomes  an  intellectual  culture ; 
and  it  shows  vigour  and  tenacity  in  making 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    237 

its  way  in  all  directions.  Man  now  appears 
as,  above  all,  a  being  whose  essence  is  pure 
thought,  as  a  personality  and  an  individuality, 
and  from  this  point  of  view  he  must  make 
further  claims  on  himself  and  on  life.  Accord- 
ingly an  attempt  is  made,  starting  from  the 
reason  immanent  in  man,  to  shape  the  indi- 
vidual departments  of  life,  such  as  religion  and 
morality,  politics  and  education,  and  these 
thus  undergo  a  complete  transformation. 
Finally,  all  variety  tends  towards  an  all- 
embracing  realm  of  thought,  and  an  inner  life 
is  developed  which,  with  its  incessant  activity, 
is  much  better  protected  against  an  irruption 
of  sensible  elements  than  the  more  passive  and 
emotional  inwardness  of  the  middle  ages. 
The  guidance  of  this  intellectual  culture 
belongs  incontestably  to  philosophy.  For 
centuries  great  thinkers  have  emphatically 
contested  the  existence  of  an  independent 
sensible  world,  and  have  sought  to  transpose 
the  whole  of  reality  into  a  web  of  thought. 
This  intellectualistic  effort  found  its  culminat- 


238  THE   LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

ing  point  in  the  system  of  Hegel,  which  not 
only  makes  the  laws  of  thought  control  the 
whole  of  reality,  but  makes  the  movement 
of  thought,  which  advances  by  means  of 
contradictions,  its  sole  content. 

But  nature,  too,  exhibits  a  life  of  its  own, 
which  is  no  less  intense,  and  which  struggles 
for  the  possession  of  the  world.  Just  as 
psychical  life,  after  the  removal  of  the  tradi- 
tional intermingling  of  psychical  and  physical, 
found  in  thought  a  world-forming  creative 
activity,  so,  after  the  expulsion  of  the 
psychical  elements,  nature  is  co-ordinated 
into  a  stricter  unity,  and  shows  that,  when  it 
is  understood  in  this  way,  it  is  capable  of 
incomparably  greater  services.  Modern  in- 
vestigation, using  the  exact  methods  of 
mechanics,  probes  nature  to  the  smallest 
elements  and  forces,  and  thus  reveals  to  us  a 
new  depth  of  reality.  By  the  aid  of  these 
elements  it  illuminates  the  existing  state  of 
things  in  the  most  thorough-going  manner, 
and  not  only  discovers  much  more  movement 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    239 

in  nature,  and,  by  following  it  up,  is  able  to 
recreate  reality,  but  also  finds  a  way  to  enlist 
the  forces  of  nature  in  the  service  of  man,  and 
thereby  enormously  enhance  his  life.  Modern 
natural  science  is  the  starting-point  of  modern 
technical  processes,  which  have  not  only  led 
to  an  enormous  advance  in  details,  but  have  in 
general  put  man  in  a  different  relation  to 
reality.  For  his  ability  henceforth  to  grapple 
boldly  with  all  the  irrationality  of  existence, 
and  to  treat  all  limitations  as  only  temporary, 
must  give  him  a  proud  self-reliance  and  instil 
an  inner  joyousness  into  his  life.  But  while 
the  shaping  of  existence  by  the  technical 
applications  of  science  shows  that  the  outer 
is  everywhere  capable  of  a  strong  influence  on 
the  inner,  and  while  it  is  easy  for  the  latter  to 
appear  as  a  mere  appendage  of  the  former,  the 
progress  of  science  produces  effects  tending  in 
the  same  direction.  The  latter,  especially 
when  it  assumes  the  form  of  a  doctrine  of 
evolution  and  makes  even  organic  forms 
subject  to  change  and  growth,  may  look 


240  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

upon  all  psychical  life  as  a  mere  product  of 
the  process  of  nature,  and  may  regard  its  task 
as  consisting  only  in  what  it  does  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  this  natural  process.  Psychical 
life  loses  more  and  more  the  independence 
which  was  formerly  assigned  to  it ;  even  in 
details  its  activity  seems  to  be  determined 
by  physical  processes.  Another  factor  which 
increases  the  importance  of  the  visible  world 
is  the  emergence  and  predominance  of 
economic  problems  in  modern  society.  Not 
only  much  that  was  formerly  in  a  state  of 
disintegration  thus  gains  coherence  for  the 
first  time  and  increases  its  influence,  but  also 
the  particular  systematization  of  modern  work 
produces  many  new  problems,  and  gives  them 
a  leading  position  in  human  life.  From  this 
point  of  view  the  management  of  life  on  its 
material  side  seems  to  be  the  main  thing  in 
human  existence,  and  the  struggle  connected 
with  it  is  the  heart  of  the  work  that  has  been 
done  throughout  history.  The  manner  in 
which  this  problem  has  been  solved  seems 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD     241 

to  give  the  different  epochs  their  peculiar 
character.  If  intellectualism  regarded  ideas 
as  the  motive  forces  of  social  and  historical 
solidarity,  the  pendulum  has  now  swung  to 
the  opposite  extreme,  and  the  place  of  ideas 
has  been  taken  by  material  interests. 

A  realistic  culture,  such  as  has  never  existed 
before,  arises  out  of  the  combination  of  these 
different  movements  and  their  annexation  of 
the  whole  of  life.  For  although  the  idealistic 
schemes  of  life  never  failed  to  meet  with  con- 
tradiction and  the  counteracting  influence  of 
realistic  modes  of  thought,  it  was  always 
rather  a  matter  confined  to  individual  schemes, 
and  did  not  extend  beyond  a  critical  and 
defensive  attitude  to  a  positive  construction 
dealing  with  life  as  a  whole.  The  occurrence 
of  this  in  the  modern  period  alters  the  situa- 
tion in  essential  particulars.  For  now  for  the 
first  time  naturalism  may  hope  to  satisfy  the 
spiritual  as  well  as  the  material  needs  of 
humanity,  and  meet  idealism  on  equal  terms. 

The  struggle  thus  enters  on  a  new  phase :  it 

16 


242  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

goes  more  than  ever  from  whole  to  whole, 
and,  when  clearly  realized,  is  bound  to  throw 
the  whole  of  life  into  frightful  unrest  and 
confusion.  Philosophy  has  again  played  the 
largest  part  in  raising  the  matter  to  the  level 
at  which  it  can  deal  with  life  as  a  whole  and 
fundamental  principles.  Only  philosophy  will 
not  now  appear  as  untrammelled  thought, 
prescribing  to  things  the  course  they  should 
pursue,  but  will  mould  itself  upon  the  data 
of  experience  with  the  greatest  possible 
fidelity,  and  will  find  its  chief  work  in  co- 
ordinating, or,  to  use  Comte's  expression, 
"  systematizing "  the  co-existences  of  ex- 
perience. Comte,  with  his  Positivism,  may 
in  general  be  regarded  as  the  realistic  counter- 
part of  Hegel:  the  opposition,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  close  relationship  between  the 
two  tendencies,  comes  out  with  particular 
clearness  in  the  life-work  of  these  two  men. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  elaboration  and 
the  collision  of  the  two  movements  takes 
place  within  the  sphere  of  a  common  effort. 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    243 

Both  in  the  one  and  in  the  other  there  is  a 
struggle  to  conquer  the  world,  a  thirst  for 
reality,  an  increased  sense  of  power,  a  trans- 
lation of  the  vital  impulse  into  objective 
work,  a  denial  of  all  separation  between  the 
two  worlds,  a  depreciation  of  the  ethical  and 
religious  inner  life  of  the  soul,  which  had  been 
developed  in  Christianity,  but  which  now 
appears  too  insipid  and  feeble.  If,  now,  these 
demands  are  satisfied  in  two  opposite  ways ; 
if,  on  the  one  hand,  the  inner  world  does  not, 
and  cannot,  tolerate  anything  outward,  nor 
the  outer  world  anything  inward,  if  the  crav- 
ing for  unity  drives  each  of  the  life-currents 
to  insist  on  its  own  exclusiveness,  then  no 
agreement  between  them  is  possible,  and 
the  movement  of  modern  times  is  bound  to 
be  transformed  into  an  incessant  struggle : 
this  is  what  has  actually  occurred. 

At  first  the  intellectual  culture  had  the 
better  of  the  struggle,  not  only  because  of 
the  greatness  of  its  cosmic  philosophy  and 
the  penetrating  power  of  its  work,  but  also 


244  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

because  it  seemed  more  capable  of  coming  to 
an  understanding  with  the  traditional  forms 
of  idealism,  and  of  making  use  of  their  forces. 
But  while  idealism  thus  found  a  support  in 
history,  naturalism  was  favoured  by  the 
immediate  impressions  of  the  real  world. 
These  impressions  have  constantly  increased 
in  strength,  and  have  tended  more  and  more 
to  produce  the  conviction  that  the  shaping 
of  life  from  within  is  an  audacious  and  indeed 
unsuccessful  venture.  But  what  has  been 
most  in  favour  of  naturalism  is  the  progressive 
spread  of  culture :  an  increasing  number  of 
men  take  an  interest  in,  and  in  fact  help 
to  decide,  ultimate  questions,  who  are  little 
affected  by  history  and  know  hardly  anything 
of  the  experiences  which  it  records,  and  who 
therefore  decide  the  great  problems  well  or 
ill  according  to  the  immediate  impressions 
of  the  present.  And  who  can  deny  that 
our  own  age  shows  no  powerful  and  strongly 
marked  movement  of  an  idealistic  character  ? 
In  the  older  forms  of  idealism  we  feel  that 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    245 

much  is  obsolete,  and  yet  we  are  unable  to 
draw  the  boundary  line  between  what  is 
obsolete  and  what  is  of  permanent  validity. 
Our  age  is  by  no  means  wanting  in  idealistic 
movements,  but  they  are  not  co-ordinated 
into  a  whole,  and  therefore  cannot  inspire 
mankind  to  enthusiasm  and  sacrifice.  On  the 
other  side  stands  naturalism  with  its  rounded- 
off  system,  its  appeal  to  the  senses,  its  easily 
understood  aims :  is  it  to  be  wondered  at  if 
the  main  tendency  of  the  age  regards  its 
triumph  as  already  settled  ?  The  question 
is  whether  the  judgment  of  the  age  has  come 
to  a  decision  which  is  finally  valid,  and  whether 
philosophy  can  be  content  to  acquiesce  in  it. 

That  philosophy  cannot  be  content  to  do  so 
is  sufficiently  proved  by  our  survey  of  history. 
For  however  large  a  part  of  our  spiritual 
achievements  history  showed  to  be  problem- 
atic and  transitory,  yet  it  revealed  powers  and 
depths  of  life  which  belong  to  its  essence  and 
which  may,  of  course,  be  denied  by  human 
opinion  and  inclination,  but  cannot  be  abol- 


246  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

ished.  The  essential  nature  which  life  thus 
revealed  gives  us  something  to  take  hold  of, 
and  contains  demands  which  must  be  satisfied 
if  life  is  to  attain  anything  more  than  a  super- 
ficial and  momentary  satisfaction.  Here, 
however,  lies  the  rock  on  which  naturalism 
makes  shipwreck,  here  is  the  basis  for  the 
assertion  that  it  will  not  be  able  to  retain  a 
permanent  hold  on  humanity.  That  naturalism 
is  in  many  respects  incomplete,  that  it  sets 
aside  many  problems  as  insoluble,  cannot  in 
the  least  degree  be  reckoned  to  its  disadvantage 
or  reproach,  for  this  is  a  defect  from  which  all 
systematizations  of  life  have  to  suffer.  It  is 
a  greater  drawback  that  its  development  in- 
volves it  in  many  contradictions,  but  such 
contradictions  may  be  quietly  ignored  or 
simply  endured.  But  the  fatal  thing  is  that  it 
does  not  meet  the  claims  which  life,  in  accord- 
ance with  its  nature  as  unfolded  by  the  move- 
ment of  history,  is  bound  to  make,  and  in 
fact  puts  itself  in  direct  opposition  to  the 
main  tendency  of  these  claims.  However 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD     247 

much  fluctuation,  and  even  at  times  retro- 
gression, the  movement  of  history  may  exhibit, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  has  elaborated 
inner  life  to  a  continually  increasing  extent  as 
opposed  to  the  outer  world,  and  has  made  this 
inner  life  continually  more  independent.  A 
kind  of  reversal  has  been  continually  in  pro- 
gress by  the  transference  to  an  ever  greater 
extent  of  the  centre  of  gravity  from  the  outer 
to  the  inner.  Naturalism  itself,  as  a  system  of 
thought  and  a  totality  of  life,  bears  witness  to 
this  superiority  of  the  inner,  for  without  this 
superiority  the  diversity  of  things  could  never 
have  been  co-ordinated,  worked  up,  and  ex- 
perienced as  a  whole.  But  this  inwardness, 
which  has  become  independent,  now  claims 
full  employment  and  satisfaction  ;  if  this  claim 
is  refused,  all  the  rich  diversity  of  inflowing 
impressions  cannot  prevent  an  emptiness,  and 
an  emptiness  which  in  the  end  is  bound  to  be 
felt.  Naturalism,  however,  with  its  building 
up  from  the  outside,  offers  no  shred  of  sub- 
stitute for  this  inwardness,  but  transforms  the 


248  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

whole  of  life  into  a  sum  of  outward  achieve- 
ments. It  is  thus  inevitable  that  it  should  be 
opposed  by  the  desire  of  man  for  happiness,  a 
desire  which  does  not  proceed  from  petty 
selfishness  but  from  the  inner  necessity  of  our 
nature,  from  the  craving  after  some  meaning 
in  our  life  and  efforts. 

If  this  destructive  action  of  naturalism  is 
not  fully  realized,  it  is  owing  to  the  fact  that 
it  usually  supplements  its  deficiencies  secretly 
by  means  of  a  stock  of  thoughts  which  belong 
to  the  world  of  idealism.  Thus  it  is  accus- 
tomed to  hold  fast  to  an  ethical  estimate  of 
action ;  in  practical  life  it  usually  retains 
without  hesitation  its  hold  on  such  things  as 
duty  and  honour,  justice  and  humanity,  though 
in  the  world  built  by  its  own  conceptions  there 
is  not  the  smallest  place  for  them,  and  though 
from  this  point  of  view  they  must  appear  no 
less  incredible  than  the  crassest  legends  and 
miracles.  But  the  more  the  consequences  of 
naturalism  are  developed,  the  more  intolerable 
must  it  find  this  dualism,  the  more  inclined 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD     249 

will  it  be  to  reject  these  supplements  as  im- 
possible, and  the  more  plainly  must  its  limits 
be  seen  and  likewise  its  inability  to  guide  life. 
Thus  its  own  outer  victory  must  destroy  it 
inwardly  :  it  is  wrecked  not  on  its  contradiction 
of  any  traditions  and  institutions — no  system 
of  thought  need  fear  such  contradiction — but 
on  its  conflict  with  the  inmost  essence  of 
human  life,  which  in  the  end  will  ever  prevail 
in  spite  of  all  aberrations  of  individuals  and 
epochs. 

But  in  a  question  like  this  the  negation  of 
one  possibility  does  not  alone  involve,  as  in 
logic  or  mathematics,  the  victory  of  the  other, 
but  life  may  quite  well  remain  in  suspense 
between  the  two  possibilities.  Although  we 
may  be  ever  so  certain  that  to  transform  life 
into  mere  relations  and  achievements  directed 
towards  the  outer  world  is  to  destroy  it  spiritu- 
ally, although  the  inability  of  naturalism  to 
give  a  meaning  and  value  to  our  existence 
may  be  perfectly  clear,  yet  a  life  in  the  sense 


250  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

of  idealism,  an  inner  world  which  should  co-or- 
dinate our  efforts  and  direct  them  along  one 
main  line,  is  not  yet  won.  We  feel,  rather, 
that  our  position  is  insecure  and  unsteady  as 
soon  as  we  seek  a  path  from  the  general  idea 
to  the  precise  systematization.  The  work  of 
the  past,  to  whose  strong  influence  we  are  all 
wittingly  or  unwittingly  subject,  presents  us 
with  three  different  ways  of  shaping  life  from 
within :  the  artistic  method  of  antiquity,  the 
ethico-religious  method  of  Christianity,  and 
the  dynamic-intellectual  method  of  modern 
times.  Each  of  these,  in  its  day,  offered  itself 
as  the  only  one,  or  at  any  rate  the  supreme 
one.  Now  we  find  them  all  pressing  upon  us 
at  once,  while  our  vision  has  been  made  much 
too  acute  by  historical  and  critical  modes  of 
thought  for  us  to  be  blind  to  their  great  differ- 
ences and  glaring  contrasts.  But  if  it  is 
impossible  simply  to  combine  them,  each  one 
of  them  displays  truths  that  must  not  be  lost, 
and  thus  successfully  resists  its  own  absolute 
negation.  Indeed,  in  the  midst  of  their  strife, 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    251 

they  seem  incapable  of  dispensing  with  each 
other's  help :  each  contradicts  the  other  and  at 
the  same  time  demands  it. 

If  we  abandon  the  artistic  idealism  of  anti- 
quity, with  its  power  of  shaping  and  ennobling 
life,  it  will  be  easy  for  our  life  in  the  midst  of 
all  its  zealous  activity  to  sink  into  a  state  of 
formlessness,  uncouthness,  and  barbarism ;  so 
we  obviously  must  preserve  here  a  funda- 
mental phenomenon  of  life.  But,  at  the  same 
time,  not  only  the  deep  obscurity  of  the  world 
and  the  severe  conflicts  in  human  life  revealed 
by  Christianity,  but  also  the  immeasurable 
capacity  for  increase  which  the  modern  period 
has  proved  to  belong  to  human  powers,  forbids 
us  to  recognize  as  final  a  scheme  of  life  so  cir- 
cumscribed and  so  instinct  with  the  harmony 
of  existence  as  that  presented  by  the  highest 
efforts  of  Greek  creative  activity.  The  depth 
of  soul  and  the  inner  movement  of  life,  the 
pervading  influence  of  a  world-embracing  love, 
and  the  great  seriousness  attaching  to  moral 
decisions,  which  are  characteristic  features  of 


252  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

Christianity,  cannot  be  surrendered  or  even 
minimized  without  impoverishing  and  lower- 
ing the  level  of  life.  But  at  the  same  time  the 
increased  psychical  activity  of  the  individual, 
as  well  as  the  greater  breadth  and  freedom  of 
life  which  we  owe  to  the  modern  period,  not 
only  make  the  historical  form  of  Christianity 
too  narrow  and  too  anthropomorphic  for  us, 
but  also  give  rise  to  the  strongest  doubts  as  to 
the  rights  of  a  specifically  religious  system  of 
life,  which  directs  man's  thoughts  and  efforts 
predominantly  to  an  existence  yet  to  come, 
and  makes  him  live  more  for  a  better  future 
than  for  the  present.  The  particular  character 
of  the  modern  period,  with  its  breadth  and 
universality,  its  rousing  work  of  thought,  its 
increase  of  human  capacity,  its  liberation  of 
men's  minds,  may  be  ever  so  highly  estimated, 
but  we  must  not  overlook  the  fact  that  not 
only  were  these  characteristics  bound  to 
necessitate  a  constant  supplementing  of  the 
older  schemes  of  life,  but  also  that  their  own 
development,  with  its  call  upon  all  our  powers 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    253 

and  its  awakening  of  unlimited  claims,  has 
conjured  up  enormous  complications.  In  par- 
ticular its  intellectualism,  for  all  its  restless 
external  activity,  remains  inwardly  confined 
within  rigid  limits.  The  faith  in  reason  and 
progress,  with  which  the  modern  period  began, 
has  more  and  more  faded  away  under  the  influ- 
ence of  these  experiences :  it  no  longer  controls 
men's  deepest  convictions  even  where  it  still 
persists  as  an  outward  confession. 

Hence  at  first  sight  everything  is  here  in  a 
confused  whirl,  conflicting  movements  inter- 
sect, and  fill  man  with  opposite  emotions. 
Here  he  is  to  think  highly,  and  there  lowly, 
of  himself ;  here  with  defiant  self-assurance  he 
is  to  subject  the  world  to  himself,  there  he  is 
humbly  to  subordinate  himself  to  it ;  here  his 
activities  and  aspirations  are  restlessly  directed 
towards  externals,  there  he  takes  refuge  in  the 
still  depths  of  his  inner  consciousness.  How 
can  a  life  that  is  full  of  so  many  contradictions 
co-ordmate  its  activities  into  one  main  direc- 
tion, how  can  it  make  its  assertion  of  the 


254  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

existence  of  an  independent  inner  world  con- 
vincing, and  bring  it  home  to  the  mind  ?  As 
the  powers  of  life  wear  one  another  down,  the 
inner  world  will  more  and  more  fade  into  a 
realm  of  shadows,  and  there  will  remain  only 
an  unstable  subjectivity  which  yields  to  every 
stimulus.  Such  a  subjectivity  may  be  strong 
enough  to  keep  naturalism  at  a  distance ;  but 
it  is  far  too  weak  to  unfold  a  world  of  its  own, 
to  bring  man  to  a  condition  of  inner  unity 
and  mankind  to  a  condition  of  inner  solidarity, 
to  combine  all  the  forces  of  life  into  one  great 
stream  and  thus  give  them  security.  We  all 
know  how  at  the  present  day  such  a  lawless 
and  unreal  subjectivity  comes  forward  as  a 
true  inwardness  and  usurps  its  rights. 

But  how  can  we  escape  from  this  precarious 
and,  in  the  end,  intolerable  position  ?  Perhaps 
we  shall  be  led,  if  not  to  the  goal,  at  least 
some  distance  along  the  road  we  are  seeking, 
by  the  perception  that  all  the  older  kinds  of 
idealism  rest  on  a  presupposition,  for  which  they 
do  not  seek  any  further  foundation,  but  which 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    255 

is  not  so  self-evident  as  it  professes  to  be. 
Everywhere,  that  is  to  say,  certain  develop- 
ments and  activities  of  the  spiritual  life  are  in 
question:  a  moulding  activity,  or  the  over- 
coming of  an  inner  contradiction,  or  the 
increase  of  power  without  limit.  That  spiritual 
life  exists  is  everywhere  assumed,  and  no  one 
troubles  any  more  about  it.  Must  not  this 
presupposition  be  transformed  into  a  problem 
by  all  the  confusions  and  doubts  which  we 
feel  so  strongly  at  the  present  day  ?  and,  if  we 
start  with  this  problem,  should  not  new  light 
be  cast  upon  life  ?  Science  has  been  often 
advanced  by  the  fact  that  what  earlier  times 
regarded  as  settled  and  self-evident  has  later 
become  transformed  into  a  difficult  problem. 
Perhaps  it  is  the  same  in  life ;  perhaps  if  we 
start  further  back  we  may  have  a  right  to  hope 
for  a  more  fertile  development  in  the  later 
stages. 

We  have  dealt  at  length  with  the  problem 
of  spiritual  life  in  various  publications,  and 
especially  in  the  Grundlinien  einer  neuen 


256  THE  LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

Lebensanschauung,  and  we  must  refer  to 
these  works  for  all  details.  But  it  is  clear, 
without  going  more  closely  into  the  question, 
that  in  spiritual  life  we  have  to  do,  not  with 
a  mere  addition  to  a  life  already  existent,  but 
with  an  essentially  new  life.  Psychical  life, 
which  otherwise  is  merely  subservient  to,  or 
accompanies,  the  process  of  nature,  gains, 
when  human  life  is  at  its  highest — not  when 
it  only  reaches  the  average — an  independence 
and  content  of  its  own.  It  is  something  so 
new  and  so  peculiar  that  it  can  be  understood 
only  as  a  new  stage  of  reality,  as  the  emer- 
gence of  a  depth  of  the  world  which  was 
formerly  hidden.  For  although  this  new  life 
may  appear  only  in  the  human  sphere,  its 
claim  to  form  a  new  domain  of  existence  as 
opposed  to  nature,  and  to  introduce  new 
realities  and  goods  and  assert  them  in  opposi- 
tion to  those  which  reign  in  the  natural  order, 
would  be  absurd  and  hopeless  from  the  start 
if  it  were  a  life  which  belonged  to  mere  man 
and  were  ultimately  bound  up  with  the  con- 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    257 

ditions  of  his  existence.  Its  cosmic  ambition 
would  be  an  audacious  folly  were  it  not  that 
it  had  a  cosmic  life  behind  it  by  whose  power 
it  is  driven  forward. 

That  with  the  upgrowth  of  spiritual  life 
man  is  raised  into  a  new  world  and  participates 
in  the  totality  of  its  life,  is  something  of  which 
we  can  gain  no  assurance  by  any  flight  of 
speculation :  conviction  can  come  only  from 
the  fact  that  a  life  is  developed  which  accom- 
plishes the  deliverance  of  man  from  the  merely 
human,  and,  in  doing  so,  by  no  means  falls 
into  the  void.  But  such  a  development  does 
appear  in  point  of  fact ;  indeed,  it  exhibits  itself 
as  the  height  of  spiritual  work  both  in  the 
macrocosm  and  in  the  microcosm.  What  is 
genuine  and  essential  in  religion  is  not  a 
petting  and  pampering  of  the  mere  man  with 
his  craving  for  happiness ;  it  is  a  removal  of 
him  into  infinity,  eternity,  perfection  ;  it  is  the 
winning  of  a  new,  wider,  and  purer  existence 
from  a  new  world.  Real  morality  does  not 
consist  in  man's  obeying  commandments  im- 


258  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

posed  upon  him  and  playing  the  part  of  the 
honest  citizen,  but  it  demands  a  new  world,  a 
kingdom  of  justice  and  love,  a  new  starting- 
point  for  life.  Real  knowledge  is  not  an 
adjustment  and  accumulation  of  impressions, 
starting  from  man  and  directed  towards 
human  ends,  but  it  is  a  penetration  into  the 
real  nature  of  things  and  an  inner  expansion 
through  participation  in  a  wider  life.  Nor  is 
that  genuine  art  which  ministers  to  the 
enjoyment  or  the  interests  of  mere  man,  but 
only  that  which  brings  him  into  an  inner 
relation  to  his  surroundings  and  at  the  same 
time  makes  something  different  out  of  him. 

Anyone  who  takes  a  general  survey  of  all 
these  points  will  feel  no  doubt  that  in  the 
human  sphere  a  new  kind  of  reality  emerges, 
a  movement  of  the  universe  is  set  in  motion. 
However  far  this  new  element  may  in  appear- 
ance retreat  into  the  background,  in  it  alone 
lies  all  the  meaning  and  value  of  human  life, 
and  so  far  it  has  succeeded  in  making  its 
influence  sufficiently  felt  to  render  impossible 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    259 

a  quiet  acquiescence  in  the  existing  condition 
of  things.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  new 
life  this  condition  must  appear  as  a  confused 
medley  of  nature  and  spirit;  in  fact,  it  will 
seem  to  be  a  difficult  and  intolerable  contra- 
diction in  that  the  spiritual,  with  all  the 
superiority  of  its  nature,  is  accustomed  in  our 
sphere  to  play  the  part  of  a  mere  accessory  to 
nature,  and,  so  far  as  it  is  developed  at  all,  is 
drawn  into  the  service  of  the  merely  human. 
In  reality,  the  average  culture  treats  the 
spiritual  as  a  secondary  matter  and  a  mere 
means  towards  human  well-being,  but  in  words 
it  proclaims  that  the  spiritual  is  the  main 
thing  and  a  complete  end  in  itself.  Hence 
this  culture  acquires  a  character  of  incomplete- 
ness and  falsity,  and  it  is  impossible  for  it 
to  carry  the  spiritual  life  beyond  individual 
phenomena  to  a  stable  and  coherent  system, 
and  from  vague  outlines  to  a  strongly  marked 
form.  Life  is  here  wanting  in  real  independ- 
ence, and  thus  does  not  get  beyond  a  half-life 
or  phantom  life. 


THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

But  if  a  desire  for  real  and  genuine  life  now 
awakens — and  the  spirituality  indwelling  in 
man  will  always  impel  him  in  spite  of  all 
contradiction  to  seek  such  a  life — it  becomes 
clear  that  a  movement  in  this  direction  cannot 
come  from  the  chaos  we  have  described,  but 
demands  an  elevation  above  this,  the  winning 
of  an  independent  standpoint,  the  development 
of  a  spirituality  superior  to  this  average  routine. 
Only  after  the  movement  is  firmly  established 
can  the  spirituality  which  is  latent  in  this 
average  be  thrown  into  relief,  purified,  and 
turned  to  account  for  the  further  development 
of  the  whole. 

Endeavours  of  this  kind  may  give  rise  to  an 
idealism  which  is  universal  in  its  nature,  because 
it  makes  it  its  task  to  appropriate  not  this  or 
that  point  in  the  spiritual,  but  the  spiritual 
itself.  But  at  the  same  time  this  idealism,  in 
its  insistence  on  the  reality  of  the  spiritual 
life  and  on  liberation  from  the  merely  human, 
prescribes  a  specific  aim,  which  is  able  to 
co-ordinate  all  the  diversity  of  these  endeavours 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    261 

and  set  them  in  due  proportions.  From  this 
point  of  view  the  whole  condition  of  culture 
will  have  to  be  submitted  to  an  examination 
to  ascertain  how  much  of  it  is  essentially 
spiritual  in  its  nature  and  what  belongs  to 
the  bustle  of  merely  human  activities.  The 
individual  systems  of  life  of  an  idealistic  nature 
must  be  taken  up  into  this  movement,  into 
this  struggle  for  independence  of  life  and  for 
the  opening-up  of  a  basal  depth  of  reality. 
This  universal  idealism  has  to  prove  its  right 
above  all  by  showing  that  it  is  able  to  appreci- 
ate all  these  developments  of  life,  to  separate 
their  permanent  content,  with  its  primary 
features,  from  their  historical  form,  to  confirm 
them  in  their  own  truth  and  provide  against 
their  lapse  into  the  pettily  human. 

This  system  of  life,  which  rests  on  an 
independent  and  essential  inwardness,  has 
above  all  an  ethical  character.  And  this  is 
principally  because,  with  this  conviction,  life 
does  not  run  its  course  in  quiet  development, 
but  contains  in  itself  the  necessity  of  a  con- 


262  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

version  from  appearance  to  reality,  and  there- 
fore of  a  complete  reversal ;  and  this  reversal, 
with  its  demand  for  a  rise  to  independence, 
cannot  possibly  be  a  mere  process  occurring  in 
man  but  must  be  his  own  act  and  deliberate 
choice.  But  at  the  same  time  this  system 
leaves  no  doubt  that  the  act  we  have  described 
does  not  depend  on  the  will  and  pleasure  of  the 
mere  man,  but  that  the  action  of  each  unit 
reaches  back  into  the  totality  of  the  world  and 
thereby  involves  a  great  responsibility.  It  is 
only  a  morality  on  such  a  basis  which  will  as 
a  general  rule  introduce  life  to  its  own  height 
and  truth ;  it  will  not  make  it  petty  and  con- 
strained, but  greater,  freer,  and  more  stable, 
for  it  is  incomparably  more  than  a  mere 
regulation  of  social  life,  accompanied  as  this 
latter  is  by  reciprocal  pressure  and  the  danger 
of  a  self-complacent  Pharisaism. 

Religion  also  belongs  essentially  to  the  life 
which  it  is  here  sought  to  attain.  If  the 
independent  spiritual  life  with  its  essential 
inwardness  stands  in  sharp  contrast  to  the 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    263 

average  condition  of  humanity,  and  cannot 
possibly  spring  from  this  condition,  then  it 
must  be  understood  and  recognized  as  the 
revelation  of  a  new  world.  Therefore,  all 
work  for  the  inner  elevation  of  man,  all 
genuine  spiritual  culture,  contains,  although 
in  a  latent  form,  and  even  in  direct  opposition 
to  the  consciousness  of  those  concerned,  an 
acknowledgment  of  such  a  superior  world 
and  of  its  living  presence  in  the  human  sphere. 
But  the  religious  character  of  life  attains  a 
clearly  elaborated  form  whenever  the  constraint 
and  the  disfigurement,  to  which  spiritual  life 
is  subject  in  the  human  sphere,  are  clearly 
realized,  but  at  the  same  time  the  maintenance 
and  further  deepening  of  spiritual  life  is  regarded 
as  a  fresh  manifestation  of  this  superior  world. 
A  religion  which  is  thus  grounded  in  the 
whole  of  the  spiritual  life  cannot  strengthen 
the  merely  human  element  in  man,  with  its 
vulgar  greed  for  happiness ;  it  cannot  drive 
his  life  into  that  which  is  petty  and  narrow, 
but,  rather,  with  the  revelation  of  infinite  life 


264  THE  LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

it  will  free  him  from  all  paltry  punctiliousness, 
and  by  giving  him  a  share  in  the  cosmic  battle 
will  lend  him  dignity  and  superiority  to  the 
world.  On  this  view,  too,  the  divine  need  not 
come  to  man  from  without,  since  it  manifests 
itself  sufficiently  in  the  very  process  of  life  by 
the  opening  up  of  a  new  depth.  At  the  same 
time  thought  and  feeling  will  be  directed  not 
so  much  towards  the  Beyond  and  the  future 
as  towards  a  present  which  transcends  time. 
It  is  then  possible  to  bring  a  counteracting 
influence  to  bear  with  good  results  upon  the 
opposition  between,  on  the  one  hand,  an  in- 
wardness that  is  withdrawn  from  the  world 
and  is  indifferent  or  even  hostile  to  sensible 
existence,  and,  on  the  other,  the  defeat  of  a 
too  passively  conceived  spiritual  by  a  sensible 
that  is  surreptitiously  introduced. 

Further,  without  the  creative  activity  of  art 
there  can  be  no  successful  construction  of  an 
independent  spiritual  world  in  the  human 
sphere,  for  this  construction  involves  the 
severance  of  the  subject  from  the  confused 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    265 

initial  situation  and  a  creative  effort  in  contra- 
distinction to  it.  Would  not  a  movement  of 
this  kind  fall  into  the  void  unless  imagination 
went  on  in  advance,  giving  form  to  the  invis- 
ible and  keeping  it  constantly  present  with 
insistent,  rousing,  and  stimulating  force  ?  The 
importance  of  this  is  most  clearly  shown  by 
the  historical  religions  with  their  impressive 
pictures  of  new  worlds,  their  pictures  of  the 
Kingdom  of  God  and  the  last  judgment,  of 
the  future  heaven  and  earth,  or  else  of  the 
endless  succession  of  worlds — pictures  which 
sometimes  inspired  men  with  deep  longing 
and  sometimes  filled  them  with  horror  and 
dread.  But  in  all  the  departments  of  life  no 
essential  progress  is  possible  unless  imagination 
thus  opens  up  the  way ;  and  the  life  of  the 
individual  needs  it  as  well,  for  it  is  only  when 
an  ideal  picture  of  itself  is  constructed  and 
kept  in  mind  that  this  life  can  enter  upon  an 
inner  movement  of  ascent,  and  thereby  rise 
superior  to  the  dull  routine  of  every  day. 
An  activity  of  an  artistic  nature  is  also  in- 


266  THE  LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

dispensable  for  the  organization  of  what  this 
inner  ascent  has  enabled  us  to  acquire.  Such 
an  activity  alone  can  extend  what  has  been 
seen  on  the  heights  to  the  whole  breadth  of 
life,  and  make  what  was  at  the  beginning 
distant  and  strange  in  the  end  near  and 
familiar.  An  artistic  activity  of  this  kind, 
which  is  grounded  in  the  connections  of 
spiritual  reality,  cannot  be  isolated  in  spite 
of  all  its  independence  of  other  departments 
of  life,  and  cannot  lead  man  on  the  road  to- 
wards a  feeble  and  unnerving  sestheticism. 

Science  and  the  civilization  based  on  it 
encompass  us  so  obviously  with  their  beneficial 
influences  that  no  doubts  of  any  kind  can  be 
admitted  as  to  their  significance.  But  that 
science  is  indispensable  can  also  be  fully 
recognized  in  connection  with  the  very  ques- 
tion of  gaining  a  new  coherent  system  in  life, 
a  self-centred  reality,  in  opposition  both  to 
the  soullessness  of  a  mechanical  nature  and  to 
the  dark  confusion  of  human  existence.  For 
what  force  can  be  found  more  suitable  than 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    267 

this,  with  its  objective  necessities,  to  deliver 
man  from  the  pettily  human  and  to  lead  the 
struggle  against  it ;  what  force  more  suitable 
to  raise  life  from  the  contingency  of  the 
temporary  situation  to  that  which  is  universal 
and  above  time ;  or  what  force  more  suitable 
than  this,  with  its  constructive  use  of  leading 
thoughts,  to  develop  inner  connections  of  a 
systematic  character?  The  liberating,  ele- 
vating, transforming  influence  of  science,  its 
capacity  for  building  up  a  world  of  thought- 
elements  in  opposition  to  that  of  sense  and 
for  enforcing  objective  necessities  in  opposition 
to  the  caprice  of  individuals,  has  been  exhibited 
by  the  modern  period  with  particular  clearness 
and  effectiveness.  We  cannot  dispense  with 
these  services  where  it  is  a  question  of  rising 
to  self-activity  and  independence.  But  at  the 
same  time  we  shall  be  safe  from  over-estimating 
the  value  of  science  if  we  regard  it  as  a 
member  of  a  wider  system  within  life,  if  we 
are  convinced  in  particular  that  it  has  to  gain 
its  strongest  driving  force  as  also  its  special 


268  THE  LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

differentiations  from  the  whole  of  life,  and 
that,  on  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  severed  from 
life,  its  fundamental  nature  renders  it  very 
liable  to  be  transformed  into  a  tissue  of 
abstract  formulae.  The  dangers  of  an  intel- 
lectualistic  ordering  of  life  are  plainly  visible 
to  us  at  the  present  day,  and  there  is  no  lack 
of  vigorous  opposition.  But  this  opposition 
will  hardly  attain  to  complete  victory  without 
a  return  to  the  roots  of  science,  and  the 
demonstration  of  its  close  connection  with  the 
whole  of  life.  By  this  close  connection  it 
may  appear  to  lose,  but  in  reality  it  gains. 

The  different  sides  of  the  life  which  it  is 
sought  to  attain,  and  the  different  lines  of 
approach  to  it,  are  very  easily  brought  into 
isolation,  and  indeed  into  conflict  with  each 
other.  Owing  to  the  limitations  of  human 
nature,  individuals  and  periods,  according  to 
their  special  impressions  and  experiences,  may 
give  the  first  place  to  one  or  other  of  these 
aspects,  and  apply  all  their  powers  and 
faculties  to  further  it :  thus  the  ways  divide 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    269 

and  the  violent  strife  which  rages  throughout 
history  becomes  quite  comprehensible.  This 
strife  will  hardly  come  to  an  end ;  the  task 
of  men  can  only  be  in  some  way  or  other 
to  rise  superior  to  it  and  to  counteract  the 
threatened  disintegration  of  life.  But  this  is 
impossible  until  the  different  movements  allow 
themselves  to  be  encompassed  by  a  totality  of 
life  and  take  the  form  of  endeavours  after  one 
and  the  same  goal.  For  this  end,  however, 
it  is  essential  that  our  existing  spiritual  assets 
should  go  through  a  process  of  sorting  and 
sifting,  of  clarifying  and  heightening:  at 
every  point  it  is  necessary  to  look  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  whole  and  to  separate  the 
spiritual  content  from  its  human  trimmings. 
But  however  much  toil  and  labour,  strife  and 
uncertainty,  this  involves,  the  general  result 
can  only  serve  to  convince  us  of  the  reality 
of  an  inner  life  and  an  inner  world,  of  the 
fact  that  man  does  grow  beyond  the  stage  of 
merely  sensuous  life.  Just  as  the  individual 
becomes  certain  of  an  inner  task  and  an 


270  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

independent  psychical  life  principally  through 
contradictions  in  his  own  nature,  which  he 
cannot  well  tolerate,  so  too  for  humanity  the 
strength  and  intensity  of  the  struggles  to  shape 
the  content  of  life  are  the  surest  witness  that 
it  is  here  in  reality  a  question  of  seeking  and 
winning  something,  that  some  important  pro- 
cess is  going  on  in  us,  that  it  is  not  a  case  of 
mere  vain  pretensions  and  empty  fancies. 
The  doubts  and  struggles  themselves  make  us 
feel  with  compelling  power  that  we  cannot 
give  up  an  inner  world,  and  that  it  is  with 
the  shaping  of  this  world  that  our  spiritual 
contest  is  principally  concerned. 

This  transference  of  the  inner  realities  to 
their  true  place  behind  the  superficialities  of 
the  merely  human  is,  further,  the  surest  and 
indeed  the  only  means  of  giving  full  recogni- 
tion to  the  element  of  truth  in  naturalism 
without  accepting  its  guidance.  Many  men, 
no  doubt,  are  still  extremely  reluctant  to 
recognize  fully  the  historical  development  of 
man  from  animal  beginnings,  the  slow  emer- 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD     271 

gence  of  the  spiritual  in  him,  the  strict  sub- 
jection of  all  life  to  material  conditions.  Such 
a  close  connection  of  the  spiritual  with  the 
natural  is  repugnant  to  them,  because  they 
believe  that  the  spontaneity  and  independence 
of  the  spiritual  are  thereby  endangered.  But 
this  danger  can  threaten  only  so  long  as  the 
fate  of  the  whole  spiritual  life  is  held  to  be 
bound  up  with  human  experience.  But  if 
it  is  once  clearly  realized  that,  however  the 
spiritual  may  have  arisen  in  man,  in  its  world- 
character  it  cannot  possibly  have  been  in  the 
last  resort  produced  by  him,  but  that,  rather, 
we  must  recognize  in  the  spiritual  the  appear- 
ance of  a  new  stage  of  the  world,  then  all  its 
insignificance  and  subjection  in  the  human 
sphere  can  in  no  way  imperil  its  independence. 
On  the  contrary,  this  subjection  to  conditions, 
and  indeed  this  weakness  of  the  spiritual  in 
the  human  sphere,  can  but  strengthen  the 
conviction  that  its  roots  strike  deeper  into 
the  ground  of  reality. 

At  the  same  time  our  action  will  not  be 


272  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

able  to  treat  the  sensible  and  natural  side  of 
our  existence  as  a  secondary  matter.  Where 
nature  ranks  as  a  stage  of  reality,  which 
remains  even  when  the  spiritual  is  developed, 
the  power  which  this  stage  contains  must  be 
enlisted  in  the  service  of  the  life-process,  in 
order  that  it  may  not  become  too  weak.  Not 
by  withdrawing  from  nature,  but  only  by 
overcoming,  appropriating,  and  penetrating  it 
can  the  spiritual  life  attain  its  full  height  and 
strength ;  only  thus  can  life  be  brought  from 
mere  outline  to  the  finished  product.  That 
which  has  done  idealism,  with  its  defence 
of  an  independent  inner  world,  more  harm 
than  any  attack  from  outside  is  the  fact  that 
it  has  often  been  intent  upon  offering  a 
picture  of  reality  which  should  be  as  smooth 
and  pleasant  as  possible,  and  upon  represent- 
ing reason  as  in  immediate  control  of  reality. 
In  doing  so  it  became  untrue,  and  lost  its 
rousing  and  deepening  force.  But  if,  on  the 
contrary,  we  are  certain  of  an  independent 
spiritual  life,  we  can  fully  recognize  the  large 


THE  OUTER  AND  THE  INNER  WORLD    273 

amount  of  obstinate  matter-of-fact  and  blind 
irrationality  in  our  world  without  necessarily 
becoming  doubtful  in  any  way  as  to  our  goals, 
or  relaxing  our  efforts  to  reach  them.  For 
then  our  world  signifies  only  a  particular 
kind  of  being,  with  which  the  ultimate  decision 
does  not  lie. 

Anyone  who  takes  all  this  into  consideration 
will  feel  no  doubt  that  our  age  has  been  set 
a  great  task  with  reference  to  this  cardinal 
interest  of  human  life.  Some  inwardness  is 
indispensable;  life  is  in  danger  of  losing  its 
equilibrium  unless  there  is  a  central  reality 
and  a  lofty  goal  to  aid  us  in  our  resistance  to 
the  overwhelming  pressure  of  the  external 
world.  Tradition  with  all  its  fulness  does 
not  supply  this  want ;  hence  it  is  important 
to  gain  a  new  standpoint,  to  look  the  problems 
straight  in  the  face,  and  to  venture  on  ways 
of  our  own.  If  the  present  crisis  has  been 
occasioned  less  by  the  increase  in  importance 
of  the  outer  world  than  by  the  uncertainty 

in  which  the  inner  world  has  become  involved, 

18 


274  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

we  are  impelled  to  go  deeper  into  ourselves 
and  to  discover  new  inner  co-ordinations. 
Only  in  this  way  can  we  become  equal  to 
dealing  with  the  complications,  and  again 
come  to  realize  the  meaning  and  value  of 
our  life.  But  how  can  we  even  strive  after 
such  goals  without  the  help  of  philosophy? 
It  is  all  the  more  called  upon  to  exert  itself 
here,  because  the  solution  of  this  problem  is 
decisive  as  to  its  own  rights  and  its  own 
development.  For  to  surrender  the  inde- 
pendence of  an  inner  world  is  to  surrender 
philosophy  as  well,  while  the  more  specific 
nature  and  relations  of  the  inner  world  dictate 
to  philosophy  also  the  path  which  it  is  to 
pursue. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  TRUTH 

UNDER  human  conditions  truth  and  happi- 
ness often  seem  to  be  irreconcilably  at 
variance.  In  his  striving  after  truth  man 
finds  his  immediate  existence  too  narrow  and 
too  petty :  he  desires  to  escape  from  this 
narrowness,  and,  passing  from  the  subjective 
to  the  objective,  to  participate  in  the  life  of 
things  and  the  whole  of  infinity.  It  seems 
that  here  the  greatest  of  all  deliverances  is 
beckoning  to  him,  the  deliverance  from  all 
the  troubled  passions  of  self-will  and  the 
contingency  attaching  to  the  particular.  A 
purer,  nobler,  infinite  life  here  emerges,  a  life 
which  even  so  moderate  a  thinker  as  Aristotle 
could  declare  to  be  more  divine  than  human. 

276 


276  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

When  he  is  inspired  by  such  high  endeavours 
man  seems  obliged  to  put  his  own  subjective 
condition  entirely  in  the  background,  and 
indeed  to  sacrifice  it  willingly  where  the 
service  of  truth  demands  such  a  sacrifice.  It 
is  quite  otherwise  with  regard  to  the  desire 
for  happiness.  Here  everything  which  con- 
cerns and  affects  man,  which  moves  him  and 
drives  him  to  action,  is  brought  into  relation 
with  a  central  point  in  which  his  own  life  is 
co-ordinated  into  a  whole.  All  his  experience 
is  measured  and  valued  in  reference  to  this ; 
from  this  source  love  and  hate,  fire  and 
passion,  stream  out  to  all  infinity.  That 
which  can  accomplish  nothing  in  these  direc- 
tions is  counted  as  useless  ballast  and  may 
well  be  left  on  one  side :  whatever,  on  the 
contrary,  is  left,  must  be  strengthened  from 
this  source.  Hence  in  the  case  of  happiness 
the  subject  takes  the  first  place,  in  the  case  of 
truth  the  object ;  there  we  have  a  vigorous 
concentration,  here  an  unlimited  expansion, 
there  an  expression,  here  a  repression  of  vital 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  277 

emotion.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the 
desire  for  happiness  the  struggle  for  truth 
may  easily  appear  cold  and  lifeless,  while  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  latter  the  former  may 
appear  narrow  and  selfish. 

It  must  not  be  thought  that  this  opposition 
is  entirely  external  to  philosophy,  which,  how- 
ever appealed  to,  decides  the  question  in 
favour  of  truth  and  against  happiness,  but  it 
extends  into  philosophy  and  produces  two 
fundamentally  different  types  of  thought. 
There  are  two  eminent  examples  which  bring 
this  contrast  before  us  in  a  palpable  form, 
those  of  Augustine  and  Spinoza.  A  fervent 
desire  for  happiness  impels  and  animates  both 
the  striving  and  the  thought  of  Augustine : 
it  is  only  this  desire,  only  an  overpowering  "  I 
will"  that  leads  him  through  all  doubts  and 
makes  him  equal  to  dealing  with  all  obstacles. 
That  which  he  apprehends  he  insists  on 
mastering  and  transmuting  into  his  own  life, 
and  even  in  what  is  apparently  most  distant 
he  sees  only  the  relation  to  the  condition  of 


278  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

the  subject,  and  therefore  enfolds  it  with  his 
emotions.  Hence  for  him  everything  falls 
under  an  alternative,  good  or  evil,  day  or 
night,  salvation  or  perdition :  here  all  attempt 
at  mediation  becomes  an  intolerable  weakness. 
Spinoza,  on  the  contrary,  attacks  the  importa- 
tion of  human  feelings  and  passions  into  the 
universe  as  a  gross  misrepresentation,  indeed 
a  complete  falsification.  He  regards  it  as 
important  to  free  the  ordinary  representation 
of  the  world  from  them,  and  to  fill  our  thought 
and  life  entirely  with  the  content  of  things. 
Contemplation  unmixed  with  volition  and 
desire  here  becomes  the  acme  of  life :  it  teaches 
us  to  look  at  things  "  under  the  form  of 
eternity,"  to  fit  every  unit  into  all-embracing 
connections,  not  to  weep  or  laugh  at  events, 
but  to  understand  them.  All  true  greatness 
here  consists  not  in  wishing  to  be  anything 
particular  for  oneself,  but  in  seeking  to  be 
entirely  absorbed  in  the  infinite :  "  he  who 
truly  loves  God  cannot  desire  that  God  should 
love  him  in  return." 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  279 

Who  is  right,  and  whose  ideal  must  rank  as 
the  higher  ?  For  both  cannot  well  be  co- 
ordinated without  further  trouble,  considering 
that  the  directions  in  which  they  point  are  so 
sharply  divergent;  hence  we  cannot  avoid 
deciding  between  them.  But  at  the  same 
time  it  seems  impossible  to  renounce  either  of 
them  entirely ;  rather,  each  apparently  re- 
quires to  be  supplemented  to  a  certain  extent 
by  the  other  side,  the  sharp  divergence  must 
admit  somehow  or  other  of  being  transformed 
into  a  convergence.  For  the  truth  from 
which  we  promise  ourselves  so  much,  and 
which  requires  so  much  work  and  zeal,  must 
surely  be  somehow  linked  with  our  own 
nature,  and  must  in  some  way  or  other  be 
auxiliary  to  our  self-preservation.  Otherwise, 
how  could  it  move  and  affect  us  so  strongly  ? 
On  the  other  hand  a  happiness  which  did  not 
go  beyond  the  condition  of  the  mere  subject, 
which  did  not  in  any  way  widen  our  sphere  of 
life  and  make  more  out  of  us,  could  hardly 
satisfy  a  reasonable  being ;  it  would  not  be 


280  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

worth  the  trouble  which  it  cost.  Thus  it 
appears  that  in  the  struggle  for  truth  a  desire 
for  happiness,  though  diminished  in  intensity, 
is  at  work,  but  that  this  desire  itself  cannot 
dispense  with  that  inner  purification  which  the 
struggle  for  truth  promises.  Hence  we  are 
impelled  to  inquire  how  far  an  approach  is 
possible,  and  whether  the  two  aims  may  not 
be  taken  as  opposite  poles  of  a  single  life. 
But  for  this  purpose  every  movement  will 
have  to  be  examined  for  itself. 

The  conception  of  truth  is  among  those 
which  at  first  sight  seem  simple  and  indeed 
almost  self-evident,  but  which  become  com- 
plicated in  proportion  as  it  is  sought  to  gain 
a  more  exact  idea  of  them.  When  we  speak 
of  truth  in  everyday  life  it  is  merely  a  ques- 
tion of  comparing  an  image,  an  opinion,  an 
assertion  of  ours  with  the  facts  of  the  case  to 
which  they  relate.  So  far  as  these  facts  lie 
within  the  realm  of  experience  such  a  com- 
parison gives  hardly  any  trouble ;  truth  can 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  281 

here  be  regarded  without  hesitation  as  the 
agreement  of  our  ideas  with  objects  (adcequatio 
intellectus  et  rei).  But  man  is  driven  beyond 
this  conception  of  truth  by  his  spiritual  nature, 
which  implants  in  him  a  capacity  to  stand 
outside  the  connected  series  of  phenomena, 
to  reflect  on  the  world  and  his  relation  to  it. 
He  develops  a  thought-world  of  his  own, 
distinguishes  it  from  the  world  of  things,  and 
cannot  help  asking  how  the  one  whole  is 
related  to  the  other,  and  how  far,  in  what 
his  thought  makes  out  of  things,  their  own 
being  is  present.  In  this  connection  it  seems 
as  if  man  were  set  a  great  task,  as  if  it  were 
a  question  of  piercing  through  an  initial  mist 
and  beholding  things  in  their  unclouded 
reality.  At  the  same  time  life  seems  to  rise 
superior  to  the  varying  opinions  of  individuals 
and  to  attain  inner  stability.  But,  however 
great  the  rewards  which  await  the  perform- 
ance of  this  task,  is  it  not  in  itself  an 
impossible  one  to  fulfil,  does  it  not  contain 
a  contradiction  ?  We  cannot  well  keep  things 


282  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

at  a  distance  from  us  and  at  the  same  time 
draw  them  back  to  us,  and  the  conception  of 
truth  as  a  copy  of  reality,  as  an  agreement  of 
our  ideas  with  a  world  of  things  that  exists 
alongside  them,  needs  only  to  be  more  exactly 
thought  over  to  be  proved  to  be  untenable. 
For,  assuming  that  man  stands  alongside 
things,  and  things  make  themselves  known 
to  him,  would  they  not  be  compelled  to 
adapt  themselves  to  his  nature  and  thereby 
become  something  different  from  what  they 
are  in  themselves  ?  The  gap,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  impossibility  of  immediately  bridging 
it  over,  must  be  all  the  more  strongly  felt  the 
more  independent  the  inner  life  is  made  by 
the  progress  of  culture.  But  even  if  things 
could  make  themselves  known  to  man  in  their 
true  nature,  how  would  it  be  possible  to  gain 
any  certainty  of  it,  since  we  cannot  transfer 
ourselves  to  a  third  standpoint  and  from  there 
compare  our  representation  of  things  with  the 
things  themselves?  But  if,  in  spite  of  the 
obvious  impossibility  of  this  solution,  a  desire 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  283 

for  truth  persists,  if  it  impels  man  with  over- 
powering force  to  seek  a  thought  and  life 
which  proceed  from  the  All,  then  an  essential 
change  in  our  relation  to  reality  will  become 
necessary ;  such  a  change  alone  can  give  us 
any  hope  that  the  apparently  impossible  may 
yet  in  some  way  or  other  become  possible. 
Hence  the  work  of  philosophy  has  been  from 
the  beginning  concerned  with  the  discovery 
and  development  of  a  relation  which  should 
overcome  the  contradiction :  each  of  the  main 
epochs  has  dealt  with  this  question  in  its  own 
characteristic  way,  there  has  been  no  great 
thinker  who  has  not  attempted  ways  of  his 
own  in  treating  of  the  problem  ;  in  fact,  it  has 
been  at  this  point  more  than  anywhere  else 
that  both  the  possibility  of  a  philosophy  and 
its  fundamental  character  have  been  decided. 
But  the  efforts  which  are  made  at  the  present 
day  are  strongly  influenced  by  this  past  work  ; 
hence  we  shall  be  compelled  to  exhibit  it  in 
its  main  features  in  order  to  take  the  bearings 
of  our  own  position. 


284  THE  LIFE  OF  THE  SPIRIT 

In  connection  with  this  problem  Greek 
antiquity  followed  its  usual  course  and  did 
not  break  away  abruptly  from  the  naive  view, 
but  developed  it  and  raised  it  to  the  spiritual 
level.  That  a  universe  is  present  and  encom- 
passes man  with  its  sure  operations  is  uni- 
versally presupposed,  and,  however  much 
opinion  may  change  in  other  respects,  this 
presupposition  is  not  called  in  question.  Hence 
spiritual  work  finds  its  main  task  in  developing 
to  full  clearness  the  relation  of  man  to  the 
world :  here  the  goal  of  the  struggle  for  truth 
is  the  philosophical  knowledge,  the  spiritual 
appropriation  of  the  world.  The  chief  epochs 
have  endeavoured  to  effect  this  purpose  in 
different  ways,  and  the  course  of  these 
attempts  displays  a  typical  character,  so  that 
it  tends  to  repeat  itself  in  later  times.  First 
of  all,  the  predominant  thought  is  that  of  a 
community  of  nature  between  the  universe  on 
the  one  hand  and  man  and  his  thinking  on  the 
other  ;  then  the  two  fall  apart  and  the  subject 
must  concern  himself  with  finding  definite 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  285 

marks  of  truth  in  himself;  finally,  thought  is 
assigned  the  capacity  of  shaping  itself  into  the 
world  and  comprehending  the  opposition  of 
subject  and  object. 

In  the  classical  period  of  Plato  and  Aristotle 
the  influence  is  still  felt  of  the  personification 
of  the  environment  which  belongs  to  the  naive 
way  of  thinking  and  which  pictures  man's 
relation  to  the  world  as  an  intercourse  with 
his  like.  For  in  spite  of  the  decay  of  that 
anthropomorphism  which  treats  things  as  big 
or  little  men,  they  retain  an  inner  life  and 
capacity  for  effort,  and  the  same  forces  which 
move  our  life  seem  also  to  govern  the  universe. 
They  do  not  seem  to  be  imported  by  man  into 
the  universe,  but  rather  to  be  communicated 
to  him  from  the  universe  which  encompasses 
him.  It  is  only  because  of  this  inner  affinity, 
or  rather  relatedness,  that  man  can  hope  to 
grasp  the  universe  in  his  thought.  The  pro- 
cess of  knowledge  is  the  bringing  into  contact 
of  two  correlatives  which  are  from  the  begin- 
ning destined  for  each  other,  but  must  come 


286  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

to  terms  before  they  can  attain  complete 
union.  This  union  is  attained  in  intuition, 
which  is  here  closely  related  to  love.  It  is  to 
this  stage  above  all  that  the  words  of  the  poet 
apply :- 

"  Were  not  the  eye  itself  a  sun, 
No  sun  for  it  could  ever  shine  : 
By  nothing  godlike  could  the  heart  be  won, 
Were  not  the  heart  itself  divine."  l 

No  doubt  on  this  view  truth  is  still  an  agree- 
ment of  the  subject  with  the  object,  of  thought 
with  being ;  but  since  philosophical  knowledge 
is  nothing  but  the  development  of  the  com- 
munity of  nature  between  the  spirit  and  the 
universe,  no  complication  arises  from  this 
conception.  It  is  not  inconsistent  with  the 
most  joyous  confidence  of  ability  to  grasp  the 
complete  truth  of  things,  and  to  participate  in 
the  true  life  of  the  universe.  Men  may  hope 
to  appropriate  the  whole  depth  of  things  since 
no  cleft  has  yet  opened  between  the  activity 
and  the  being  of  things,  but,  rather,  their 

1  Goethe,  Zahme  Xenien :  cf.  Plotinus,  Emieads,  i.  6. 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  TRUTH  287 

whole  being  is  present  in  their  activity.  On 
this  conception  thought  is  clearly  enough 
separated  from  all  merely  sensuous  perception, 
but  it  takes  up  into  itself  a  certain  objectivity, 
a  plastic  form,  and  thus  acquires  a  certain 
affinity  to  such  perception.  Scientific  work  is 
itself  a  kind  of  artistic  moulding,  an  appropria- 
tion and  inner  revivifying  of  things,  a  co- 
ordination in  thought  of  the  manifold  into  a 
unity,  a  transformation  of  the  chaos  of  sensuous 
impressions  into  a  well-ordered  cosmos :  it  is 
at  the  same  time  a  joyous  raising  of  the  whole 
of  human  nature  to  a  higher  level. 

Just  as  in  the  case  of  Plato  all  this  stands 
in  immediate  connection  with  the  whole  of 
the  personality,  so  here  the  artistic  and  plastic 
character  of  thought  is  still  more  strongly 
marked.  When  scientific  investigation  be- 
comes independent  in  the  hands  of  Aristotle 
this  artistic  character  tends  to  fade  out  of 
sight,  but  it  by  no  means  entirely  disappears. 
There  remains  a  close  connection  of  human 
life  with  the  universe,  and  unwearying 


288  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

efforts  are  directed  towards  transforming  the 
world  into  a  web  of  inner  unities,  ends,  and 
forces,  and  thereby  bringing  it  closer  to  the 
spirit  of  man  and  making  it  transparent  to 
his  intellect.  Innumerable  threads  are  spun 
between  man  and  his  environment,  in  fact  a 
vigorous  articulation,  a  systematic  organiza- 
tion of  the  whole  of  reality  is  attained.  But  as 
the  system  settled  down  into  greater  clearness 
there  is  no  longer  any  possibility  of  concealing 
that  anthropomorphism  which  the  whole,  with 
all  its  greatness  of  achievement,  involved.  It 
was  bound  to  seem  especially  dangerous  just 
because  it  was  hidden,  and  men  could  not 
permanently  fail  to  notice  that  a  great  deal 
of  what  was  here  offered  as  explanation  was 
nothing  more  than  an  image  and  similitude. 
At  the  same  time  the  whole  was  bound  to 
be  rejected  because  felt  as  an  intolerable 
mingling  of  fact  and  image,  as  well  as 
a  transference  to  objects  of  what  is  merely 
subjective.  This  in  particular  was  the  case 
at  the  beginning  of  the  modern  period  with 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  TRUTH  289 

Scholasticism,  and  all  the  more  because  the 
latter  held  fast  to  the  forms  of  Aristotle  with- 
out being  able  to  retain  his  spirit  and  the 
inner  connections  of  his  thought.  But  already 
in  antiquity  the  increasing  severance  of  man 
from  the  world  drove  the  struggle  for  truth 
beyond  the  classical  solution  and  compelled 
it  to  seek  new  paths. 

One  of  these  new  paths  was  attempted  by 
the  Stoa.  Even  the  Stoics  do  not  doubt  that 
the  world  exists  and  that  man  belongs  to  it, 
but  for  them  the  close  connection  between 
the  two  has  been  loosened.  They  make  the 
subject  their  starting-point  and  thence  seek 
to  gain  enlightenment  as  to  what  may  be 
regarded  as  real  and  true.  Much  zeal  is  ex- 
pended in  ascertaining  definite  marks  which 
teach  men  to  distinguish  genuine  knowledge 
of  things  from  mere  imagination.  Investiga- 
tion does  not  here  so  much  enter  into  the 
life  and  activity  of  things  as  sketch  certain 
fundamental  features  of  the  whole  and  make 

men  believe  in  them.     At  the  same  time  the 

19 


290  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

close  alliance  between  philosophy  and  the  in- 
dividual sciences,  which  distinguishes  the  work 
of  Aristotle,  comes  to  an  end,  and  the  different 
sciences  go  their  own  ways.  But  to  make  up 
for  this,  life  in  the  human  sphere  is  investi- 
gated more  closely  and  made  deeper ;  in 
particular,  it  is  when  his  ethical  task  is  clearly 
thrown  into  relief  that  man  believes  he  is 
winning  an  inner  connection  with  reality  and 
an  assured  truth.  The  truth  that  appears  in 
this  ethical  sphere  is  confirmed  by  importing 
the  whole  personality  into  it :  the  maintenance 
of  knowledge  becomes  itself  a  valiant  action. 
But  the  attempt  to  reconcile  this  knowledge 
completely  with  the  whole  of  the  universe 
does  not  succeed :  the  world  which  stands 
alongside  man  is  predominantly  of  a  physical 
and  logical  character ;  if  a  doubt  should  arise 
the  sphere  of  ethical  life  may  easily  be  isolated 
and  appear  uncertain :  but  this  also  shakes 
man's  faith  in  truth.  The  problems  and  con- 
tradictions which  are  involved  in  the  Stoic 
doctrine  have  been  very  clearly  emphasized 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  291 

by  Scepticism,  whose  achievements  have  been 
far  too  little  appreciated  by  the  moderns. 
When  the  Sceptics  saw  that  there  was  a  rigid 
division  between  subject  and  object,  doubt 
was  bound  to  extend  further  and  further 
until  every  avenue  to  truth  seemed  barred  to 
man. 

But  the  modern  period  was  not  the  first 
to  oppose  this  division ;  the  Greek  world  had 
already  done  so,  principally  in  the  cosmic 
speculation  of  Plotinus.  It  is  here  held  as  a 
truth  beyond  doubt  that  a  knowledge  of 
things  existing  outside  thought  is  an  absolute 
contradiction ;  and  thus,  if  all  knowledge 
which  deserves  the  name  of  knowledge  is 
not  to  disappear,  things  must  be  compelled  to 
take  their  place  within  the  world  of  thought. 
But  this  cannot  be  done  unless  thought  makes 
itself  the  object  of  knowledge  and  thereby 
overcomes  the  division,  in  the  sense  that  know- 
ledge is  nothing  but  a  self-cognition  of  thought. 
Then  investigation  had  only  to  bring  into 
emphatic  prominence  this  activity  of  thought 


292  THE   LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

and  to  express  in  terms  of  it  all  the  data  of 
experience.  Plotinus  having  set  about  doing 
this  with  vigorous  boldness  and  on  the  grand 
scale,  discovered  in  thought  the  essential  inde- 
pendence of  life  and  made  this  into  the  soul 
of  all  reality.  There  is  here  unfolded  a  vision 
of  things  from  within  outwards,  from  the 
whole  to  the  part ;  all  reality  is  set  in  flux,  its 
different  realms  become  stages  in  an  all-em- 
bracing movement.  Since  it  is  an  essential 
unity  which  underlies  all  diversity,  the  appre- 
hension of  unity  is  the  principal  task  of  know- 
ledge, unity  is  what  it  strives  to  see  before  all 
else  at  every  step.  In  this  connection  the 
thought  of  infinity  arises,  a  thought  which 
embraces  all  oppositions  and  indeed  reduces 
them  to  harmony.  Thus  the  world  is  co- 
ordinated in  a  magnificent  way  and  filled  with 
inner  life ;  the  dependence  of  one  thing  on 
another,  the  permeating  stream  of  life,  the 
necessity  and  importance  of  the  thought  of 
unity,  are  enforced  with  peculiar  power.  But 
this  is  accomplished  by  sacrificing  all  the  vivid- 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  293 

ness  of  the  concrete  and  the  particular,  by 
transforming  reality  into  a  realm  of  logical 
relations,  which  would  have  constituted  a 
tissue  of  mere  forms  and  formulas  were  it  not 
that  a  strong  impulse  of  an  emotional  nature 
had  given  the  whole  a  deeply  religious  tone 
and  thus  infused  life  into  it.  But  when  this 
tendency  prevails,  knowledge,  just  when  it 
reaches  its  greatest  height,  must  exchange  its 
character  of  scientific  insight  for  that  of 
obscure  feeling,  of  a  freely  ranging  emotional 
mood.  Although  it  may  still  retain  some 
truth,  this  species  of  knowledge  has  given  up 
the  attempt  to  ascertain  the  detailed  content 
of  the  world  and  has  renounced  the  form  of 
science. 

We  thus  find  a  wealth  of  movement  even 
within  antiquity,  and  we  recognize  that  it  is  a 
gross  error  to  extend  the  particular  character- 
istics of  the  classical  period  to  the  whole  of 
antiquity.  But  still  throughout  all  its  phases 
it  did  retain  one  common  feature,  viz.,  that 
belief  in  the  world's  existence  was  not  shaken, 


294  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

and  the  relation  of  man  to  it  was  regarded  as 
the  main  problem  ;  it  was  in  close  connection 
with  this  that  thought  maintained  its  position 
as  the  guide  of  life.  When  Christianity  made 
the  heart  and  core  of  life  to  consist  in  the 
relationship  to  God,  and  indeed  to  a  God  who 
is  not  so  much  indwelling  in  the  world  as 
superior  to  it,  this  was  bound  to  produce 
essential  changes  both  in  the  aim  and  in  the 
character  of  the  struggle  for  truth.  The 
mam  concern  of  knowledge  was  now  to  work 
out  the  relations  between  God  and  man ;  but 
this  was  a  question  on  which  the  work  of 
science,  and  indeed  the  human  faculties  at 
large,  were  unable  to  give  definite  informa- 
tion: for  this  purpose  it  needed  a  communi- 
cation on  the  part  of  the  deity,  a  divine 
revelation,  "  about  God  it  is  possible  to  learn 
only  from  God  "  ( Athenagoras).  From  man, 
however,  a  docile  acceptance  of  this  revelation, 
an  unconditional  faith,  is  demanded :  hence 
faith  and  not  knowledge  is  regarded  as  the 
way  to  the  truth  that  decides  the  salvation 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  295 

of  man.  Faith  is  represented  as  having  the 
advantage  over  knowledge  not  only  in  its 
greater  certainty  but  also  in  its  greater 
intelligibility  ;  even  the  simplest  working-man 
may  have  his  share  in  faith  while  those  who 
attain  to  knowledge  are  never  very  many. 
The  truth,  however,  which  is  attained  by  this 
path  has  for  its  content  great  world-events 
of  a  moral  nature ;  in  particular,  everything 
centres  round  the  problem  of  man's  revolt 
and  deliverance,  everything  else  becomes  a 
mere  setting;  according  to  Augustine  it  is 
only  of  God  and  the  soul  that  it  is  necessary 
to  know  anything.  While  the  sphere  of 
human  thought  is  thus  confined  within  the 
narrowest  limits,  there  arises  at  the  same  time 
a  far-reaching  change  in  the  general  outlook 
on  reality,  since  the  totality  of  the  world  is 
now  regarded  as  resting  upon  a  free  personal 
Being,  and  as  being  governed  by  ethical  tasks. 
Hence  man  with  his  ethical  strivings  may 
know  himself  to  be  bound  up  with  the  deepest 
foundations  of  reality  ;  he  stands  at  the  centre 


296  THE  LIFE  OF  THE  SPIRIT 

of  the  world  and  may  be  absolutely  convinced 
of  the  truth  of  the  content  of  faith.  Indeed, 
for  the  participators  in  this  ethico-religious 
movement  the  whole  world  is  opened  up. 
Things  seem  to  express  their  deepest  being  in 
what  they  accomplish  for  the  ethico-religious 
task.  Where  they  cannot  work  directly  in  its 
service,  they  do  so  hi  image  and  similitude, 
and  thus  even  the  figures  and  processes  of 
nature  become  symbols  of  what  is  contained 
in  sacred  history. 

But  the  conception  of  faith,  which  is  here 
the  foundation  of  all  certainty,  contains  diffi- 
culties which  first  give  rise  to  many  com- 
plications within  the  sphere  of  Christian 
thought,  and  finally  even  threaten  to  convulse 
it.  It  cannot  well  be  denied  that  there  is  a 
department  of  knowledge  additional  to  that 
of  faith ;  then  the  question  becomes,  how  are 
the  two  related  to  one  another?  It  is  a 
question  which  can  receive,  and  has  received, 
different  answers.  In  particular  there  comes 
into  view  a  pervading  opposition  between  a 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  297 

universalistic  and  a  positivistic  mode  of 
thought :  the  one  seeks  to  bring  faith  and 
knowledge  into  friendly  alliance,  the  other  to 
keep  them  as  sharply  apart  as  possible.  Ac- 
cording to  which  conception  is  adopted,  each 
of  the  two  departments  will  take  on  a  different 
form.  One  means  of  seeking  a  combination 
of  the  two  is  to  maintain  that  knowledge  is 
a  preparation  for,  and  a  lower  stage  in,  what 
comes  to  its  highest  perfection  in  faith.  But, 
in  spite  of  this  subordination,  owing  to  its 
close  connection  with  divine  truth  know- 
ledge is  directed  towards  essential  problems ; 
it  acquires  a  speculative  character.  But  the 
content  of  faith,  however  superior  it  may  be, 
is  seized  upon,  worked  over,  and  illuminated 
by  thought ;  faith  appears  as  another  and 
higher  kind  of  knowledge,  which  is  only 
possible  by  communication  from  God,  but  it 
still  remains  a  kind  of  knowledge.  It  is  this 
mode  of  thought  which  finally  gained  the 
ascendancy  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  in 
which  at  the  present  day  it  retains  an  unas- 


298  THE   LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

sailable  supremacy.  In  the  middle  ages, 
however,  it  had  to  wage  a  hard  struggle  with 
the  other  type,  which  has  predominantly 
gained  the  adherence  of  ecclesiastical  Pro- 
testantism. To  the  latter  type  the  above- 
described  mode  of  reconciliation  seems  to 
endanger  the  characteristic  nature  of  faith, 
the  specific  character  of  the  facts,  and  the 
immediateness  of  the  conviction.  For  the 
preservation  of  these  it  seems  that  the  sharpest 
possible  separation  is  necessary,  an  "either 
....  or  "  takes  the  place  of  the  "  both  .... 
and."  Faith  thus  loses  its  intermixture  with 
speculation :  but  the  less  it  is  regarded  as 
capable  of  proof,  the  more  it  becomes  a  matter 
of  free  decision ;  it  is  regarded  as  an  act  of 
the  will  and  is  declared  to  be  a  "  practical 
attitude"  (habitus  practicus).  The  facts  on 
which  it  is  based  present  themselves  as  pre- 
eminently historical  in  character  and  insist 
on  being  received  as  such.  Knowledge,  how- 
ever, is  kept  at  a  distance  from  these  funda- 
mental questions  so  far  as  possible,  and  is 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  TRUTH  299 

directed  towards  the  world  of  nature ;  it 
becomes  thereby  much  more  closely  con- 
nected and  concerned  with  experience.  This 
opposition  between  a  universalistic  and  a 
positivistic,  an  intellectualistic  and  a  volun- 
taristic,  mode  of  thought,  divides  men  to  the 
present  day,  and  we  do  not  see  how  it  can  be 
resolved  within  this  range  of  ideas.  Its 
deepest  root  lies  in  the  fact  that  Christianity 
insists  at  the  same  time  on  being  an  historical 
fact  and  on  having  a  universal  validity ;  and 
according  as  one  or  other  of  these  claims 
comes  into  prominence,  the  mode  of  thought 
will  assume  this  or  that  form. 

Still  more  difficult  than  this  problem  of  the 
relation  between  faith  and  knowledge  is  the 
complication  in  the  conception  of  faith  itself. 
From  the  beginning  faith  strove  to  be  some- 
thing more  than  knowledge — a  claim  which  it 
could  justify  only  if  it  proved  that  it  sprang 
from  a  greater  depth  of  the  soul ;  it  carried 
out,  or  at  any  rate  attempted  to  carry  out, 
this  justification  by  putting  itself  forward  as 


800  THE   LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

a  manifestation  and  expression  of  the  whole 
nature,  as  a  purely  inward  matter  entirely 
dependent  on  free  decision.  But  the  willing- 
ness to  receive  a  divinely  revealed  truth,  and 
the  resolution  not  to  be  led  astray  from  alle- 
giance to  it  by  any  misgivings  of  reason,  have 
a  necessary  presupposition ;  the  divine  origin 
of  the  doctrine  in  question  must  be  exempt 
from  all  doubt,  infallible  testimony  must 
assure  us  of  it.  But  only  science  can  examine 
whether  such  testimony  is  really  available,  and 
hence  it  seems  that  an  act  of  knowledge  must 
precede  faith.  The  misgiving  which  results 
from  this  would  be  more  easily  removed  if  it 
were  a  question  of  something  which  arose  in 
the  life  of  the  individual  and  could  prove  itself 
immediately  by  its  elevating  influence :  but  it 
is  here  a  question  of  facts  in  the  history  of  the 
world,  which  lie  beyond  the  life  of  the  indi- 
vidual and  have  first  to  be  imparted  to  him. 
How  can  faith  in  such  facts  prove  that  it  has 
an  unassailable  right  ?  Roman  Catholicism 
has  supposed  this  difficulty  overcome  by  its 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  301 

assertion  that  the  Church  has  a  teaching  office 
entrusted  to  it  by  God  ;  but  this  assertion  has 
first  to  be  proved,  and  the  study  of  history 
shows  that  there  are  very  weighty  objections 
to  it.  In  any  case  the  decision  of  the  question 
lies  with  science ;  and  this  shows  that  the 
foundation  of  faith  is  dependent  on  the  very 
thing  above  which  it  strove  to  raise  man.  At 
the  average  level  of  life  faith  is  thus  nothing 
more  than  a  docile  acceptance  of  what  the 
Church  brings  forward  as  truth,  which  is  here 
guaranteed  by  tradition  and  authority.  If,  in 
opposition  to  this,  Protestantism  represented 
faith  as  arising  immediately  in  the  individual, 
the  presupposition  was  that  the  facts  which 
form  its  basis  are  accessible  to  every  individual 
and  must  be  immediately  self-evident  to  him. 
We  cannot  doubt  to-day  that  the  matter  is  by 
no  means  so  simple.  According  to  the  form 
which  the  question  has  recently  taken,  it  is 
sought  to  attain  certainty  of  faith  principally 
by  a  combination  of  psychical  experiences  and 
historical  facts ;  psychology  and  history  are  to 


302  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

work  together  towards  the  same  goal.  But 
each  of  these  has  had  its  credibility  seriously 
shaken  by  modern  investigation;  and  the 
combination  of  two  uncertain  quantities  can 
never  by  any  possibility  produce  a  certainty. 
Thus  at  the  present  day  faith,  which  was  to 
relieve  man  of  all  doubts,  has  itself  become  an 
object  of  doubt ;  its  power  of  conviction  is 
limited  to  a  sphere  within  which  man  feels 
himself  encompassed  by  a  clearly  defined 
religious  world,  certain  and  self-evident,  which 
makes  both  the  existence  and  the  proximity  of 
the  Deity  as  obvious  to  him  as  his  own  exist- 
ence. If  this  world  falls  into  discredit,  indeed 
if  it  loses  in  any  degree  the  naive  certainty 
which  it  possessed  for  the  men  of  the  middle 
ages,  faith  ceases  to  be  a  sure  foundation  for 
truth  and  itself  becomes  a  difficult  problem. 

The  more  the  modern  period  has  developed 
an  independent  character  the  more  has  the 
specifically  religious  conduct  of  life  retreated 
into  the  background  and  had  its  presupposi- 
tions shaken.  The  first  result  is  a  great 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  TRUTH  303 

uncertainty  as  regards  the  problem  of  truth. 
Christianity  has  torn  man  away  from  the 
coherences  of  the  world  which  encompassed 
him  in  antiquity,  and  the  increased  independ- 
ence of  the  soul  forbids  a  simple  return.  But 
he  is  no  longer  certain  even  of  the  Deity ;  in 
any  case  his  relation  to  the  Deity  no  longer 
controls  the  whole  of  life.  In  this  situation 
where  can  he  now  turn  to  find  truth,  and 
what  meaning  can  this  conception  still  retain  ? 
In  accordance  with  the  experiences  which  we 
have  described  man  can  seek  truth  nowhere 
else  but  in  himself;  his  own  life  must  possess 
a  depth  which  even  for  himself  at  first  lies  in 
a  dim  and  distant  background ;  with  the  full 
appropriation  of  this  depth,  however,  he  may 
hope  to  discover  a  world  in  himself,  or  rather 
he  may  himself  grow  into  a  world.  The 
object  then  to  be  aimed  at  is  a  transference  of 
life,  not  into  something  which  exists  outside 
us  or  above  us,  but  into  something  which 
belongs  to  us,  but  which  can  become  com- 
pletely our  own  life  only  by  a  vigorous  trans- 


304  THE  LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

formation,  and  indeed  revolution.  Reality  is 
not  here  found  already  existing,  but  it  has  to 
be  built  up  from  within :  truth  is  thus  a 
striving  of  life  towards  itself,  a  seeking  for 
its  own  being.  Hence  it  cannot  be  the  agree- 
ment with  a  given  reality:  it  becomes  an 
agreement  with  itself,  a  self-co-ordination  of 
a  life  which  becomes  independent  and  raises 
itself  to  a  higher  level,  instead  of  remaining 
disintegrated  and  constrained.  Its  verification 
can  only  lie  in  the  fact  that,  by  embracing  it, 
the  whole  of  existence  is  transformed  into 
spontaneous  life,  raised  to  an  essentially  higher 
level,  and  at  the  same  time  united  into  a  whole 
of  creative  effort  which  moulds  reality. 

Here  the  main  problem  is  to  find  the  point 
where  a  spontaneous  and  creative  life  springs 
up  in  man  as  the  deepest  thing  in  his  own 
nature.  According  to  the  form  which  this 
life  takes,  different  forms  will  be  assumed  by 
reality  and  truth ;  but  that  such  a  life  is 
attainable  in  some  way  or  other  is  the  common 
presupposition  of  that  faith  in  reason  which 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  305 

pervades  the  creative  efforts  of  the  modern 
period  and  is  enunciated  with  particular  clear- 
ness in  the  works  of  its  leading  thinkers.  The 
reason  which  is  immanent  in  the  human  race 
must  now  take  the  place  of  the  universe  and 
the  Deity.  This,  too,  is  common  to  all 
attempts,  viz.,  that  the  movement  does  not 
proceed  from  a  pre-existing  world  towards 
man,  but  from  man  towards  a  world  which 
has  first  to  be  constructed.  This  movement 
draws  everything  into  itself  which  at  the 
beginning  lies  outside  it ;  it  tolerates  nothing 
which  does  not  conform  to  the  necessities 
indwelling  in  it ;  everything  previously  existing 
must  fit  in  with  and  accommodate  itself  to 
these  necessities,  or  it  can  no  longer  maintain 
its  position.  It  is  evident  how  great  a  change 
comes  over  human  activity  as  compared  with 
the  older  way,  how  much  it  gains  in  independ- 
ence, how  much  more  active  and  productive 
it  becomes,  but  at  the  same  time  how  much 
more  restless  and  critical.  In  moulding  the 

world  it  will  insist  on  developing  things  from 

20 


306  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

their  first  beginnings  and  at  the  same  time  on 
gaining  control  over  them  :  this  it  is  which 
principally  determines  the  character  of  modern 
science,  and  it  is  also  the  impelling  force  to- 
wards a  complete  renewal  of  human  existence. 
The  question  as  to  where  such  a  life 
emerges  in  man  is  now  closely  connected 
with  the  attempt,  which  has  been  previously 
discussed,  to  find  in  thought  the  persistent 
power  that  is  able  to  hold  together  existence, 
which  otherwise  strives  to  diverge,  and  to  gain 
a  spiritual  mastery  over  it.  The  predominant 
tendency  is  first  of  all  to  declare  that  thought 
is  that  spontaneous  creative  effort  which  raises 
man  by  himself  above  the  pettily  human  and 
leads  him  to  truth  by  enabling  him  to  parti- 
cipate in  the  life  of  the  world.  It  was  thought 
in  particular  which,  throughout  the  centuries, 
undertook  and  carried  through  the  working 
out  of  objective  necessities  and  wide  com- 
plexes in  opposition  to  the  narrowness  and 
constraint  of  the  pettily  human.  In  this 
movement  it  raised  itself  more  and  more 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  307 

freely  above  the  immediate  existence  of  man, 
co-ordinated  itself  more  firmly  on  its  own 
basis,  and  took  up  into  itself  to  a  continually 
increasing  extent  whatever  confronted  it  as 
an  independent  world.  In  this  advance  of 
thought  three  chief  stages  can  be  dis- 
tinguished ;  the  Enlightenment  (Descartes, 
Spinoza,  and  Leibniz),  the  critical  philosophy 
(Kant),  and  constructive  speculation  (Fichte, 
Schelling,  and  Hegel). 

When  the  Enlightenment  took  the  thinking 
subject  as  the  starting-point  of  the  struggle 
for  truth,  it  would  have  gained  very  little  by 
doing  so  if  it  had  not  discovered  in  this 
subject  a  definite  content  and  a  moving  force. 
It  found  these  in  the  "  innate  ideas,"  the 
"  eternal  truths,"  which  seemed  to  form  an 
absolutely  certain  original  endowment  of  the 
human  spirit.  When  these  truths  unfold 
themselves,  seize  upon  the  surrounding  world 
and  shape  it  conformably  to  their  own 
demands,  a  realm  of  reason  arises  and  vouch- 
safes man  an  apparently  universally  valid  and 


308  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

unassailable  truth.  But  neither  the  repre- 
sentation of  nature  nor  the  sphere  of  man 
can  reach  the  state  of  truth  except  by  toil- 
some labour  of  an  intellectual  nature.  The 
object  to  be  aimed  at  is  a  thorough  purgation 
and  sifting,  which  must  get  rid  of  everything 
that  refuses  to  be  illuminated  by  thought, 
while  everything  that  stands  the  test  is  more 
effectively  revivified,  and  more  firmly  co- 
ordinated. This  gives  rise  to  natural  science, 
with  the  exactitude  of  its  mathematical 
methods,  and  also  to  a  culture  based  on 
reason,  which  makes  a  problem  out  of  every- 
thing handed  down  by  historical  tradition, 
and  lets  nothing  pass  which  cannot  clearly 
and  distinctly  prove  its  rights  at  the  bar  of 
reason.  This  attempt,  however,  derives  its 
self-confidence  and  its  power  chiefly  from  the 
conviction  that  reason  is  not  a  matter  of 
mere  man,  but  controls  the  universe ;  hence 
what  man  recognizes  as  truth  can  have  a 
limitless  validity  beyond  him ;  he  himself, 
however,  gains  a  high  life- task  and  a  com- 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  309 

pletely  satisfying  happiness  by  participating 
in  this  universally  valid  truth  and  in  the 
building  up  of  a  kingdom  of  reason.  Thus 
Leibniz  is  of  opinion  that  the  whole  earth 
"  cannot  serve  our  true  perfection  unless  it 
gives  us  opportunity  of  finding  eternal  and 
universal  truths,  which  must  be  valid  in  all 
worlds,  indeed  in  all  periods,  and,  in  a  word, 
with  God  Himself,  from  whom  they  continually 
proceed."  Both  with  Leibniz  and  in  the 
Enlightenment  generally,  faith  in  the  posses- 
sion of  universally  valid  truth  rests  on  the 
conviction  that  the  human  reason  is  grounded 
in  a  divine  world-encompassing  reason.  It 
was  sought  first  of  all  to  find  a  basis  for 
this  conviction  in  close  connection  with  the 
traditional  transcendent  conception  of  God ; 
faith  in  the  veracity  of  God  may  then 
enable  us  to  trust  our  own  reason  with 
complete  confidence  if  it  conscientiously  ob- 
serves the  rules  prescribed  to  it.  Spinoza, 
however,  with  his  philosophy  of  immanence, 
goes  so  far  as  to  conceive  that  a  cosmic 


310  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

thought  is  immediately  present  in  us,  that  it 
is  not  so  much  we  who  think  as  it  which 
thinks  in  us  ;  the  only  important  point,  there- 
fore, is  to  make  sure  of  such  a  cosmic  thought, 
and  we  can  do  so,  according  to  Spinoza,  if  we 
free  our  intellectual  work  from  the  influence 
of  human  conditions  and  aims,  and  allow  it 
to  be  determined  purely  by  the  inner  neces- 
sities of  thought  itself.  For  what  makes  the 
usual  representation  of  the  world  inadequate 
and  erroneous  is  that  man  is  treated  as  the 
centre  and  goal  of  all  reality,  that  in  par- 
ticular the  oppositions  which  belong  merely 
to  human  modes  of  feeling,  such  as  the  anti- 
thesis of  good  and  bad,  beautiful  and  ugly, 
etc.,  are  imported  into  the  universe,  and  have 
grossly  distorted  its  image.  The  first  condi- 
tion of  truth  is,  therefore,  a  modest  self- 
repression  on  the  part  of  man,  a  willing 
submission  to  the  necessities  of  things  as 
thought  reveals  them ;  man  must  remove  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  his  own  being  from  the 
confused  whirl  of  the  passions  into  a  passion- 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  311 

less  thought,  into  a  contemplation  of  things 
which  is  unmixed  with  volition  and  desire. 
Pure  thought  of  this  nature  can  place  man 
in  the  stream  of  a  cosmic  life,  deliver  him 
from  everything  that  is  pettily  human,  and  by 
the  opening  up  of  an  eternal  and  infinite  life, 
vouchsafe  him  complete  rest  and  blessedness. 

But,  however  high  may  be  the  position 
which  Spinoza  thus  assigns  to  thought,  and 
however  strongly  he  represents  it  as  self- 
moving  and  progressing  in  accordance  with 
its  own  necessities,  he  does  not  deprive  it  of 
all  relation  to  objects  existing  outside  itself; 
he  holds  fast  to  the  position  that,  while 
thought  unfolds  its  own  nature  and  necessi- 
ties, it  corresponds  at  the  same  time  to  a 
being  which  exists  alongside  it ;  in  place  of 
agreement  we  have  here  a  parallelism  of 
thought  and  being,  and  it  seems  thus  to 
become  possible  that  one  and  the  same  funda- 
mental process  of  the  universe  should  embrace 
both  series  and  come  to  expression  in  them. 
But,  on  this  solution,  not  only  is  the  above 


312  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

presupposition  of  an  all-embracing  world-basis 
open  to  attack,  but  also  the  relation  between 
the  two  series  leads  to  the  gravest  complica- 
tion. It  must  at  once  arouse  misgivings  that 
Spinoza  nowhere  puts  the  two  series  on  the 
same  level  but  always  subordinates  one  to  the 
other ;  either  thought  becomes  a  mere  mirror- 
ing of  nature,  whose  laws  thus  widen  till  they 
become  laws  of  the  universe,  or  thought  forms 
the  core  of  reality  and  nature  is  nothing  more 
than  its  manifestation  and  environment.  But 
doubt  cannot  be  suppressed  on  the  further 
question  as  to  whether,  if  the  two  sides  are 
incommensurable,  the  idea  of  a  parallelism  is 
not  an  absolutely  unthinkable  thought,  whether 
it  is  not  essentially  self-contradictory.  But 
whatever  doubts  of  this  description  may  arise, 
they  cannot  obscure  the  greatness  and  inevit- 
ability of  Spinoza's  endeavour  to  discover  a 
cosmic  nature  in  man  himself,  to  distinguish 
in  him  the  merely  human  from  the  cosmic ; 
at  least  we  do  not  see  how  the  modern  man 
could  find  his  way  to  truth  by  any  other  path. 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  313 

But  was  Spinoza  right  in  placing  this  cosmic 
nature  solely  and  entirely  in  intellectual 
activity,  and  in  imagining  that  every  other 
kind  of  life  ought  necessarily  to  be  degraded 
to  a  lower  stage  ?  In  this  way  he  reached 
only  a  reality  of  logical  forms  and  formulae, 
whose  emptiness  and  soullessness  must  have 
been  immediately  evident,  were  it  not  that  a 
mystic  and  religious  intuition,  entirely  different 
in  its  nature,  had  infused  life  and  warmth  into 
the  whole.  In  spite  of  the  vigorous  energy  of 
his  thought  in  certain  directions,  there  is  no 
other  philosopher  who,  in  the  fundamental 
texture  of  his  system,  is  so  compound  of 
contradictions  as  the  thinker  who  is  praised 
by  many  as  the  supreme  example  of  the  quest 
for  unity. 

The  struggle  for  truth  reaches  a  new  stage 
with  Kant.  He  is  the  first  to  recognize  clearly 
that  truth,  in  the  sense  of  the  agreement  of 
thought  with  an  existence  external  to  it,  is  an 
absolute  absurdity.  But  since  at  the  same 
time  the  existence  of  some  truth  or  other  is 


314  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

insisted  upon  with  the  utmost  vigour,  the 
conception  of  truth  must  undergo  essential 
modifications  ;  in  reality  a  complete  revolution 
is  brought  about  in  the  relation  between 
thought  and  being.  It  is  now  taught,  not  that 
thought  has  to  conform  to  being  but  that 
being  has  to  conform  to  thought,  that  is,  we  are 
acquainted  with  reality  only  so  far  as  things 
enter  into  the  forms  of  our  intellectual  organ- 
ization ;  truth  thus  ceases  to  be  for  us  the 
knowledge  of  things,  and  becomes  the  self- 
knowledge  of  the  human  spirit,  which  prepares 
for  itself  a  world  of  its  own — acting,  it  must 
be  admitted,  on  an  impulse  independent  of 
itself.  This  self-knowledge,  however,  surpasses 
everything  which  earlier  epochs  possessed  of  a 
like  kind,  and  gains  an  incomparably  richer 
content  through  the  coming  to  light  of  an 
inner  structure,  a  comprehensive  web  of  spirit- 
ual life,  in  the  course  of  that  construction  of  a 
world.  In  the  gaming  of  this  knowledge 
there  arises  a  new  kind  of  investigation,  the 
transcendental,  which  is  concerned  with  the 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   TRUTH  315 

inner  possibility  of  knowledge,  as  opposed  to 
the  empirico-psychological  method,  which 
treats  of  its  origin  and  growth  in  the  indi- 
vidual man.  Our  view  of  reality  is  thereby 
fundamentally  transformed,  for  henceforth  all 
the  coherence  which  it  presents,  in  particular 
all  the  assertions  which  it  includes  about 
ultimate  grounds,  have  to  be  regarded  not  as 
belonging  to  reality  itself  but  as  imported  into 
it  by  man.  Thus  man  in  his  struggle  for 
truth  does  not  transcend  himself,  he  does  not 
reach  in  knowledge  a  point  where  a  universal 
life  springs  up  in  him,  but  remains  always 
confined  to  his  own  circle  of  thought,  the 
contents  of  which  cannot  be  universally  valid, 
since  they  have  arisen  under  special  conditions 
and  have  not  proceeded  from  an  original 
creation.  For  Kant  regards  it  as  beyond 
question  that  human  thought  is  non-creative. 

But  if  the  Kantian  movement  from  the 
object  to  the  subject  thus  puts  human  know- 
ledge on  a  much  lower  level  and  threatens  to 
make  truth  merely  relative,  it  brings  us  into 


316  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

an  incomparably  happier  position  in  the  domain 
of  the  practical  reason,  in  morality.  For  here, 
according  to  Kant,  the  subject  can  rise  to 
creative  activity,  eliminate  everything  specifi- 
cally human,  and  thereby  press  forward  to  an 
absolute  truth.  Hence  the  thinker  has  no 
doubt  that  the  ultimate  meaning  of  the  world 
is  moral,  and  that  man,  by  participation  in  it, 
attains  a  universally  valid  truth,  a  superhuman 
life,  and  at  the  same  time  an  incomparable 
greatness  and  dignity.  He  reaches  these 
heights,  indeed,  only  in  this  special  direction, 
and  not  so  much  by  scientific  knowledge  as 
by  an  inner  appropriation  which  is  of  the  nature 
of  faith,  and  which  cannot  be  forced  on  anyone, 
but  requires  a  free  recognition,  an  inward 
up-striving  of  life.  Hence  this  philosophy 
does  not  by  any  means  fail  to  transform  pre- 
existing reality  and  to  grasp  a  cosmic  nature 
in  man,  and  thus  possesses  a  metaphysics,  but 
of  a  kind  completely  different  from  all  earlier 
systems. 

The  Kantian  philosophy  forms  the  beginning 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  TRUTH  317 

of  a  new  epoch  in  the  struggle  for  truth  both 
in  negation  and  in  affirmation.  The  impossi- 
bility of  the  old  conception  of  truth  is  clearly 
and  cogently  demonstrated,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  philosophical  is  finally  distinguished 
from  the  naive  treatment  of  the  problem.  All 
immediate  connection  of  thought  with  things 
disappears,  and  there  is  a  simultaneous  dis- 
appearance of  the  capacity  of  thought  to  reveal 
to  man  by  freely  ranging  speculation  a  realm 
of  universally  valid  truth ;  at  the  same  time 
the  view  of  the  world  is  freed  from  the  deeply 
rooted  confusion  of  subjective  and  objective 
which  had  hitherto  prevailed.  But  if  man 
thus  loses  the  connection  with  a  surrounding 
world,  he  gains  in  exchange  a  new  world  in 
his  own  being,  and  the  very  limitation  of 
knowledge  seems  to  make  it  possible,  this 
ethical  turn  having  been  given  to  philosophy, 
to  put  the  struggle  for  truth  on  a  new  basis, 
which  is  simpler,  surer,  and  more  fruitful  than 
any  of  its  earlier  forms.  The  struggle  for  truth 
is  here  thoroughly  purged  from  all  mere  intel- 


318  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

lectualism,  and  indeed  the  conception  of  truth 
is  itself  deepened. 

But  the  obstinate  strife  over  the  interpreta- 
tion of  Kant  soon  proved  that  these  changes 
did  not  provide  any  final  solution  but  gave 
rise  to  new  problems ;  this  is  also  proved  by 
the  fact  that  the  movement  of  philosophy  so 
quickly  went  beyond  Kant.  Can  the  subject 
be  raised,  as  is  here  the  case,  so  as  to  become  a 
texture  of  inner  life,  and  yet  at  the  same  time 
be  bound  in  knowledge  to  an  unfathomable 
world  ?  Is  it  possible  to  lift  the  special 
domain  of  morality  above  the  rest  of  life  to 
a  condition  of  complete  independence,  creative 
activity,  and  absolute  truth  ?  Will  not  this 
new  life  either  draw  the  other  up  to  itself  or 
else  sink  down  to  the  level  of  the  rest,  with  its 
subjection  and  its  merely  human  character? 
Will  the  cleavage  between  the  theoretical  and 
the  practical  reason,  with  the  conflicting  emo- 
tions to  which  it  exposes  man,  be  permanently 
endurable  ?  So  much  is  certain ;  from  the 
standpoint  of  history  it  is  clear  that  Kant  did 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  TRUTH  319 

not  provide  a  final  solution,  which  brought 
peace  and  union,  but  that  he  gave  rise  to  a 
powerful  movement  and  an  enormous  amount 
of  contention. 

We  know  that  it  was  in  the  first  place  the 
craving  for  a  more  effective  unity  in  the  world 
of  thought  which  drove  effort  into  new 
channels.  Thought,  which  with  Kant  was  so 
sharply  separated  from  the  world,  now  be- 
comes the  workshop  in  which  the  whole  of 
reality  is  created  ;  it  is  vigorously  thrown  into 
relief  against  merely  human  conditions,  and 
thus  grows  to  be  a  world-process  which  drives 
forward  all  being  by  its  own  movement, 
fashions  all  that  is  apparently  alien  to  it  into 
its  own  possession,  and  proves  its  rights  not 
by  any  sort  of  external  verification  but  by  its 
inner  mastery  of  the  whole.  This  movement 
which  commences  in  Fichte  with  directive 
force  and  fervid  zeal,  reaches  its  consumma- 
tion and  its  ripest  development  in  Hegel. 
Thought  is  here  raised  entirely  above  the 
mere  subject,  it  has  for  its  vehicle  the  work 


320  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

of  society  throughout  history,  which  work  is 
itself  thereby  co-ordinated  and  spiritualized. 
The  motive  power  of  the  process  is  contained 
in  the  fact  that  thought  produces  contradic- 
tions out  of  itself  and  overcomes  them,  and 
that  it  is  thereby  driven  further  and  further 
until  it  has  finally  assimilated  the  whole  range 
of  existence  and  at  the  same  time  admitted  it 
to  its  own  truth.  Since  man  can  identify 
himself  completely  with  this  movement,  this 
self-unfolding  of  spiritual  life,  if  he  vigorously 
rejects  all  his  narrow  opinions  and  self-willed 
striving,  he  seems  here  to  participate  in  the 
full  and  complete  truth  :  nowhere  else  in  the 
whole  course  of  history  do  we  meet  with  so 
joyous  and  proud  a  feeling  of  the  possession 
of  truth.  Our  world  of  thought,  however, 
undergoes  a  radical  change  of  condition  when 
it  is  attempted  to  carry  out  this  undertaking, 
in  such  wise  that  all  the  diversity  of  things  is 
united  to  form  a  single  structure,  everything 
which  is  apparently  isolated  is  brought  into 
relation  with  everything  else,  everything  that 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  321 

is  at  rest  is  set  in  active  motion,  all  mere 
matter-of-fact  is  illuminated  by  logic  and 
rationalized. 

This  achievement  as  a  whole  has  resulted 
in  a  vast  increase  of  spiritual  capacity,  which 
cannot  simply  disappear.  But  as  a  definitive 
solution  of  the  problem  of  truth  it  was  bound 
before  long  to  meet  with  opposition.  It  in- 
volved the  assumption  that  the  spiritual  life 
of  humanity  is  spiritual  life  pure  and  simple, 
absolute  spiritual  life,  and  it  thus  exaggerated 
human  capacity  in  a  way  that  became  intoler- 
able, especially  to  the  nineteenth  century, 
with  its  growing  recognition  of  the  subjection 
of  man  to  wider  systems.  Further,  it  could 
not  accomplish  this  transformation  of  reality 
into  a  process  of  thought  without  either  trans- 
forming it  into  a  realm  of  mere  shadows  and 
categories,  or  else  essentially  supplementing 
it  from  a  richer  world  of  thought  and  so 
leaving  the  path  upon  which  it  had  entered. 
We  know  how  suddenly  the  whole  structure 
collapsed,  and  this  precisely  because  the  pro- 


322  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

cess  of  thought  was  unable  to  maintain  its 
superiority  over  the  subject,  because  the 
subject  violently  appropriated  the  increased 
mobility  of  thought,  and  consequently  gave 
rise  to  an  unlimited  subjectivism,  which 
contains  no  trace  of  any  higher  truth  common 
to  all  men. 

Thus  with  regard  to  the  problem  of  truth 
we  now  find  ourselves  in  an  extremely  un- 
certain and  confused  position.  The  movement 
of  history  has  made  an  irreparable  breach 
with  the  naive  conception  of  truth:  it  has 
raised  claims  to  which  our  capacities  do  not 
seem  equal,  but  which  we  cannot  renounce. 
It  is  true  that  the  modern  period  shows  no 
lack  of  attempts  to  minimize  these  claims  and 
to  find  some  sort  of  truth  without  metaphysics. 
Thus  Positivism  transforms  knowledge  into  a 
mere  determination  and  description  of  the 
relations  of  things,  which  in  their  own  nature 
are  absolutely  inaccessible  to  us ;  thus 
Pragmatism  transforms  knowledge  into  a 
mere  means  and  instrument  of  human  well- 


THE    PROBLEM   OF   TRUTH  323 

being.  But  we  are  impelled  beyond  such 
limitations  not  merely  by  the  persistence  of 
theory,  which  seeks  to  invent  some  "meta- 
physics "  or  other  for  any  given  existence, 
but  also  by  the  irresistible  power  of  man's 
innate  spirituality.  That  we  are  not  a  mere 
constituent  in  a  web  of  relations  of  things 
is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  very  fact  that 
we  are  able  to  consider  our  relationship  to 
our  environment,  apprehend  it  as  a  whole, 
and  recognize  the  relations  as  relations.  But 
as  soon  as  we  convince  ourselves  that  behind 
the  sphere  of  our  knowledge  there  still  lies 
an  unattainable  world,  we  cannot  help  feeling 
that  what  we  have  attained  is  unsatisfying  as 
belonging  to  the  mere  surface  of  things.  And 
what  would  be  fairly  tolerable  as  a  limitation 
of  thought  becomes  absolutely  unendurable 
as  an  ultimate  limitation  of  life.  For  here, 
where  it  is  a  question  of  arousing  and  co- 
ordinating all  our  powers,  it  is  impossible  to 
renounce  ultimate  goals,  and  therefore  the 
consciousness  that,  with  all  our  toil  and  labour, 


324  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

we  can  never  penetrate  beyond  the  surface  of 
things  to  their  fundamental  nature,  is  bound 
to  produce  an  unspeakable  emptiness  in  which 
no  nature  of  any  force  can  finally  acquiesce. 
Was  it  by  chance  that  Comte  himself  in  the 
end  set  to  work  with  heart  and  soul  to  create 
new  ideals  ?  Was  it  by  chance  that  both 
Mill  and  Spencer,  at  the  end  of  their  laborious 
days,  felt  painfully  the  limitations  of  the  solu- 
tion which  they  had  offered,  that  thus  all  the 
leaders  of  Positivism  were  impelled  by  their 
own  natures  to  transcend  their  own  philosophy  ? 
Man  may  treat  nature  as  something  external, 
although  this  too  has  its  limits,  but  he  cannot 
permanently  maintain  this  attitude  towards 
other  men,  and  especially  towards  himself. 
But  this  does  away  with  Positivism,  which 
knows  only  external  relations. 

But  as  regards  Pragmatism,  which  ought 
to  have  more  attention  paid  to  it  in  Germany, 
let  us  accord  full  recognition  to  its  efforts  to 
deliver  the  problem  of  truth  from  its  customary 
isolation  and  to  bring  it  into  closer  connection 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  325 

with  the  whole  of  life.  It  is  only  such  a  con- 
nection which  will  give  truth  a  firm  founda- 
tion and  enable  it  to  assume  a  fruitful  form. 
But  the  question  is,  what  is  understood  by 
this  whole  of  life  ?  If  it  means  nothing  more 
than  the  complex  of  actual  society,  as  it  dis- 
plays itself  in  the  wide  field  of  experience, 
the  struggle  for  truth  would  be  subject  to  all 
the  dissipation  and  collision  of  forces,  the 
selfish  striving  after  happiness  of  the  mere 
man,  the  spiritual  sluggishness  of  mere  average 
humanity,  and  thus  truth  would  be  sacrificed 
to  utility,  de-spiritualized,  and  thereby  de- 
stroyed. But  after  all  the  movements  and 
experiences  of  world-history  we  cannot  help 
feeling  keenly  so  unfortunate  a  result:  we 
have  grown  beyond  both  mere  nature  and 
merely  social  existence,  we  cannot  help 
measuring  this  existence  by  the  necessities  of 
our  spiritual  life,  we  cannot  turn  round  and 
make  the  latter  depend  on  the  former.  The 
average  condition  must  be  very  highly  idealized 
if  it  is  to  be  accommodated  to  the  endeavour 


326  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

after  truth  without  serious  harm.  Or  else  we 
must  recognize  another  life  besides  that  of 
the  social  sphere.  But  where  this  assumption 
is  made  explicitly  and  worked  out  consistently, 
a  fundamental  transformation  of  the  earlier 
situation  becomes  necessary  ;  men  resume  the 
quest  for  a  metaphysical  system,  and  once 
more  the  struggle  for  truth,  in  the  old  sense 
of  the  deliverance  of  man  from  the  merely 
human  and  the  winning  of  a  new  and  more 
essential  life,  must  come  into  prominence. 
Thus  we  find  ourselves  in  the  end  agreeing 
with  Hegel  that  a  highly  educated  people 
without  a  metaphysics  resembles  a  temple 
without  a  holy  of  holies.  Only  let  us  not 
understand  by  metaphysics  something  gratui- 
tously added  by  thought  to  a  rounded-off 
world,  but  something  which,  by  a  vigorous 
reversal  of  existence,  forms  the  very  first  step 
to  a  stable  and  essential  reality. 

Hence  a  final  renunciation  of  metaphysics 
is  impossible  without  producing  such  a  marked 
degradation  of  life  as  to  be  intolerable ;  we 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  327 

shall  have  to  resume  the  struggle  for  truth  in 
this  higher  sense  of  the  word.  However 
certain  it  is  that  we  cannot  do  so  simply  by 
returning  to  the  achievements  of  an  earlier 
period,  yet  the  experience  of  history  shows  us 
the  direction  in  which  we  have  to  seek  our 
goal.  And  this  experience  leaves  us  in  no 
doubt  that,  when  we  take  up  the  struggle,  we 
cannot  start  from  the  world  nor  from  a  tran- 
scendent Deity,  but  only  from  the  process  of 
human  life.  And  it  is  just  as  certain  that  the 
struggle  cannot  start  from  the  immediate  con- 
dition of  psychical  life,  as  empirical  psychology 
determines  it,  but  that  it  requires  a  reversal, 
a  transference  to  a  spontaneous,  self-active, 
creative  life.  It  is  only  thus  that  man  can 
participate  in  a  cosmic  life  that  forms  the 
essence  of  things,  and  so  gain  possession  of 
truth. 

Such  a  reversal  has  been  undertaken  with 
great  energy  by  the  leaders  of  modern  phil- 
osophy :  the  form  taken  by  the  attempt  was 
that  a  special  kind  of  activity  was  exalted 


328  THE   LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

above  all  the  rest,  and  a  new  life  of  an  inde- 
pendent character  developed  from  it.  Some 
demanded  for  this  purpose  a  knowledge  rooted 
in  itself,  others  a  creative  moral  activity.  But 
we  have  seen  what  complications  resulted  from 
this  limitation  to  a  special  faculty.  This  sub- 
ordination not  only  drives  life  into  a  channel 
that  is  too  narrow  for  it,  but  such  a  faculty 
does  not  seem  to  be  in  a  position  to  produce  a 
new  reality  from  itself,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  effect  a  reversal  of  previous  existence. 
Besides,  a  shaping  process  of  which  the  trans- 
forming power  does  not  extend  over  the  whole 
range  of  life  will  hardly  acquire  the  stability 
and  certainty  which  are  necessary  for  this 
movement ;  in  that  case  doubts  and  contradic- 
tions will  continually  arise  from  other  sides  of 
life.  Consequently  the  next  requirement  will 
be  that  this  reversal  should  extend  over  the 
whole  of  life,  that  in  particular  it  should  rise 
superior  to  the  intolerable  cleavage  into  a 
theoretical  and  a  practical  reason.  Life  must 
get  behind  this  cleavage,  it  must  be  possible 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  329 

to  reach  beyond  the  individual  faculties  a  total 
activity,  which  by  its  own  movement  develops 
into  an  independent  reality  and  at  the  same 
time  comprehends  the  opposition  of  subject 
and  object,  subjectivity  and  objectivity.  But 
this  is  much  what  we  have  in  mind  in  the  con- 
ception of  spiritual  life.  It  is  not  that  a 
primary  thought  or  even  a  creative  moral 
activity  operates  in  us,  but  that  a  new  totality 
of  life,  a  self-existent  and  self-sufficing  being, 
a  primary  creative  power  which  fashions  the 
world  and  expresses  itself  in  complete  acts, 
makes  its  presence  felt  in  us  —  this  is  the 
cardinal  principle  on  the  attainment  and  vivid 
realization  of  which  all  truth  of  thought  and 
life  depends  for  us.  Hence  it  is  not  a  question 
of  the  appropriation  and  strengthening  of  par- 
ticular sides,  but  of  making  independent  and 
co-ordinating  all  the  inner  life  that  is  active  in 
us,  and  thus  reaching  a  new  starting-point  for 
the  whole  of  life. 

This  new  life  has  to  confirm  its  truth  by  an 
enhancement  of  the  whole  range  of  our  exist- 


330  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

ence.  It  will  be  seen  that  it  is  only  from  this 
standpoint  that  the  contents  and  values  un- 
folded by  our  life  can  be  understood,  and, 
further,  that  the  latter  is  raised  to  an  infinitely 
higher  level  when  it  is  summoned  to  independ- 
ence and  co-ordinated  into  a  self-existing  and 
self-sufficing  world.  Just  as  the  new  life,  as 
the  totality  of  a  new  being,  is  raised  still 
further  above  the  mere  man  and  the  immediate 
situation,  so  also  it  will  make  greater  demands 
than  the  older  kinds  of  reform ;  in  face  of 
the  given  condition  of  things  it  demands  at 
each  separate  point  a  disturbance  and  trans- 
formation of  old  conditions ;  everywhere  the 
object  to  be  aimed  at  is  to  work  out  an 
independent  spirituality,  to  oppose  it  in  the 
first  place  to  the  average  life,  and  then  to 
refer  it  back  to  this  life.  The  whole  of 
existence  is  thereby  transformed  into  a  general 
problem  which  can  be  solved  only  very 
gradually.  For  this  independent  spirituality 
cannot  be  suddenly  transformed  into  reality 
by  a  bold  fiat,  but  the  work  and  experience  of 


THE  PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  331 

world-history  are  necessary  for  this  purpose ; 
it  is  only  by  convulsions  and  negations  that  it 
is  possible  to  compel  life  to  open  up  its  depths. 
But  since  in  the  end  the  truth  of  thought 
depends  on  the  essential  content  of  life, 
thought  must  get  rid  of  the  idea  that  at  a 
given  moment  it  can  reach  conclusions  which 
are  final  for  all  periods.  Though  it  must 
necessarily  insist  on  a  truth  which  transcends 
time  and  possesses  absolute  stability,  the 
stability  of  this  truth  does  not  lie  in  man  but 
in  the  spiritual  life,  and  if  man,  as  grounded 
in  the  spiritual  life,  must  in  some  way  or  other 
participate  in  this  truth,  to  work  it  out  to  a 
self-active  possession  is  a  high  goal  to  which 
we  can  only  slowly  approach.  If  truth,  if  a 
life  which  fashions  the  world  and  partakes  of 
the  essence  of  things,  are  not  in  the  first  place 
incontestable  facts  for  us,  then  all  our  trouble 
about  them  is  wasted ;  but  that  they  likewise 
form  difficult  problems  which  are  continually 
recurring,  is  shown  with  peculiar  force  by  the 
struggles  and  confusions  of  the  present.  It 


332 

is  an  urgent  necessity  for  our  spiritual  self- 
preservation  that  life  should  be  deepened  and 
renewed ;  but  this  cannot  be  accomplished 
without  a  bold  advance,  a  successful  search 
for  new  connections,  a  further  development  of 
our  world  of  thought.  Can  we  expect  to 
advance  in  these  endeavours  without  the  help 
of  philosophy  ?  Is  it  not  an  indispensable  ally 
in  the  struggle  for  a  richer  content  of  life  and 
more  truth  of  conviction  ?  And  does  not  the 
idea  of  an  independent  spiritual  life  open  up 
new  outlooks  and  tasks,  the  possibility  of  a 
revolution  ?  Humanity  has  indeed  not  yet 
exhausted  the  possibilities  of  life. 

If  the  struggle  for  truth  thus  rests  on  the 
craving  after  a  life  which  partakes  of  the 
essence  of  things,  it  cannot  possibly  divest 
itself  of  all  strong  emotions  and  become  an 
affair  of  quiet  contemplation  and  selfless 
resignation.  For  the  above  conception  shows 
clearly  that  its  motive  force  lies  in  the  impulse 
towards  spiritual  self-preservation :  without 
the  elemental  force  of  this  impulse  it  would 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  TRUTH  333 

never  succeed  in  overcoming  the  pressure  of 
the  actual  world  and  in  building  up  a  new 
world  of  self-activity  in  opposition  to  it.  Re- 
signation is  justified  only  so  far  as  this  spiritual 
self-preservation  requires  much  negation  and 
renunciation  just  because  it  is  fundamentally 
different  from  self-preservation  on  the  natural 
level.  This  negation,  however,  must  be  the 
reverse  side  of  an  affirmation  if  it  is  not  to 
remain  lifeless  and  unfruitful.  It  would  be 
easy  to  show  that  even  in  Spinoza's  philosophy 
there  is  no  lack  of  positive  and  joyous  vital 
emotion  in  the  depths  of  existence.  But  if 
this  is  so,  then  the  irreconcilable  hostility 
between  truth  and  happiness  disappears,  the 
struggle  for  truth  will  help  to  purify  and 
ennoble  the  desire  for  happiness  and  will  not 
tend  to  suppress  it ;  it  will  be  able  to  aid  the 
latter  in  overcoming  the  complications  to 
which  it  gives  rise. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  HAPPINESS 

OUR  age  has  particularly  urgent  cause  to 
occupy  itself  with  the  problem  of  happiness, 
for  we  are  confronted  by  a  remarkable  con- 
trast between  the  greatness  of  the  outward 
achievements  of  the  age  and  the  insecurity  of 
its  sense  of  happiness.  In  successful  devotion 
to  the  work  of  civilization  we  surpass  all  other 
periods  ;  how  far  are  we  in  advance  of  them  in 
the  knowledge  of  nature,  in  the  mastery  and 
utilization  of  its  forces,  in  the  humane  ordering 
of  society  !  But  it  cannot  be  denied  that  all 
these  achievements  do  not  help  us  to  attain 
a  joyous  and  assured  sense  of  life,  that  a 
pessimistic  tone  has  become  very  widespread 
and  continually  extends  further.  How  is  it 


334 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  HAPPINESS        335 

that  with  us  work  and  happiness   refuse  to 
associate  ? 

When  such  a  dislocation  compels  us  to  con- 
sider the  nature  and  conditions  of  happiness, 
we  immediately  encounter  a  grave  misgiving. 
May  man  as  a  general  rule  make  happiness  the 
goal  of  his  efforts,  is  it  not  a  sign  of  a  narrow 
and  petty  character  that  in  every  effort  man 
should  think  principally  of  what  gain  he  is  to 
receive  in  happiness  ?  Experience,  too,  seems 
to  show  plainly  that  not  only  individual  men 
but  whole  nations  and  religions  have  been  able 
to  renounce  happiness :  we  know,  further,  that 
thinkers  of  the  very  first  rank  have  called  for 
something  higher  than  the  struggle  for  happi- 
ness. But  if  we  look  more  closely  we  find 
that  their  opposition  has  been  directed  not  so 
much  against  happiness  as  against  lower  con- 
ceptions of  happiness  :  even  in  the  substitutes 
which  have  been  offered  in  its  place  a  craving 
after  happiness  can  always  finally  be  recognized. 
Men  have  wanted  something  different  from 
the  majority,  but  they  have  always  opposed  to 


336  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

the  existing  condition  of  life  another  which 
was  higher  and  better,  and  have  sought  to 
enlist  human  feelings  and  faculties  in  the  task 
of  attaining  it :  but  is  this  not  a  craving  after 
happiness  ?  Thus  even  the  Indian  sage  strives 
for  happiness  when  he  tries  as  far  as  possible 
to  negate  life,  to  bring  it  into  a  condition  of 
absolute  repose  and  indeed  indifference.  For 
then  absorption  in  the  universe  or  even  com- 
plete annihilation  appears  to  him  a  better  state 
than  his  previous  life  with  its  labours  and  cares, 
its  excitements  and  disappointments.  And 
the  struggle  for  happiness  need  by  no  means 
remain  bound  to  the  narrowness  and  poverty 
of  the  natural  ego,  but  rather  the  very  aim  of 
the  struggle  may  be  to  find  a  new,  purer, 
nobler  being,  a  life  which  is  freed  from  this 
ego  and  yet  remains  active  and  vigorous. 
Thus  we  see  that  the  conception  of  happiness 
is  itself  by  no  means  simple,  and  that  the 
opposition  does  not  apply  to  happiness  so  much 
as  to  lower  and  inadequate  conceptions  of 
happiness.  Indeed,  it  is  a  thing  to  be  insisted 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   HAPPINESS        337 

upon  that  man  should  let  the  thought  of 
happiness  control  his  efforts,  for  it  is  only  by 
doing  so  that  he  can  put  all  the  vigour  of  his 
life  and  the  strength  of  his  emotions  into  his 
action  :  he  cannot  devote  all  his  energy  to  the 
struggle  after  anything  in  which  he  does  not 
expect  to  find  satisfaction  for  his  own  nature. 
Fundamentally  different  conceptions  are  in- 
cluded in  the  term  happiness,  but  it  is  only 
dulness  of  thought  which  can  agree  to  a  general 
renunciation  of  happiness :  all  real  life  is 
strictly  individual  life,  and  to  this  happiness  is 
indispensable. 

But  this  survey  has  already  shown  that 
happiness  is  not  something  simple,  that  the 
understanding  of  it  is  only  to  be  reached  by 
labour  and  struggle.  This  lends  value  to  a 
survey  of  world -history  in  the  present  con- 
nection. Let  us  then  make  a  hasty  journey 
through  the  ages  keeping  this  problem  in 
view,  not  in  order  to  consider  the  whole 
array  of  individual  solutions  but  only  to 

show   the    leading   types    which    human    life 

22 


338  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

has  elaborated,   and   which   cannot   cease  to 
occupy  us. 

We  begin  once  more  with  the  highest 
achievements  of  ancient  culture.  Here  the 
answer  to  the  inquiry  after  happiness  rests  on 
a  peculiar  attitude  towards  life  and  the  world 
which  pervades  the  whole  course  of  Hellenism. 
Effort  is  supported  by  the  conviction  that  the 
joy  of  life  lies  principally  in  activity,  that  it  is 
therefore  the  chief  object  of  endeavour  to  enter 
upon  a  state  of  activity,  to  assume  an  active 
and  not  a  passive  attitude  towards  things.  In 
the  course  of  Greek  development,  activity,  on 
the  high  level  of  the  spiritual  life,  has  continu- 
ally retreated  further  and  further  from  contact 
with  the  immediate  environment,  and  has 
taken  refuge  in  the  inner  nature  of  man,  and 
indeed  finally  in  the  relation  to  a  being  superior 
to  the  world  ;  but  yet  faith  in  activity  and  joy 
in  activity  have  always  remained.  In  the 
struggle  which  Plotinus  finally  waged  against 
Christianity  it  was  a  leading  consideration  that 
this  religion  makes  man  hope  and  wait  too 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  HAPPINESS        339 

much  for  help  from  an  outside  source,  while 
the  good  cannot  gain  the  victory  unless  every 
individual  himself  takes  up  arms  and  fights. 
On  the  Greek  view,  activity  needs  no  reward 
in  order  to  gain  the  allegiance  of  man ;  it  is 
its  own  joy  and  reward :  as  Aristotle  says,  all 
life  possesses  a  "  natural  sweetness." 

But  now  the  question  arises,  in  what,  then, 
does  the  activity  consist  which  is  able  to 
control  and  fill  life?  With  regard  to  this 
question  thinkers  were  naturally  bound  to 
go  their  own  ways.  They  seek  what  leads  to 
the  highest  form  of  activity  in  that  which 
distinguishes  man  from  other  beings,  and 
exalts  him  above  them  :  this  is  reason,  which 
is  here  defined  more  exactly  as  thought.  In 
virtue  of  his  thought  man  can  overcome  the 
distraction  of  sensible  impressions  and  the 
transience  of  external  stimulations ;  he  can 
grasp  permanent  values  and  aims ;  in  fact,  he 
can  leave  behind  him  the  whole  domain  of 
civil  life  with  all  its  petty  interests,  and  in  the 
contemplation  of  the  universe,  with  its  eternal 


340  THE   LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

order  and  wonderful  beauty,  he  can  attain  a 
true  and  lasting  happiness.  He  can  return 
hence  to  man  and  his  soul,  and  here  also  strive 
to  attain  a  condition  essentially  higher  than 
the  average. 

To  this  effort  Plato  was  the  first  to  give  an 
individual  character  and  a  vigorous  elabora- 
tion. His  conception  of  happiness  involves 
an  energetic  negation  and  rejection  of  the 
usual  human  existence :  all  the  happiness 
which  is  there  offered  and  commended  seems 
to  him  fleeting,  external,  and  illusory.  But 
science  reveals  to  the  thinker  the  possi- 
bility of  contemplating  an  eternal  order  of 
things  which,  in  accordance  with  his  character- 
istic tendency  towards  grandeur  and  vividness 
of  conception,  becomes  co-ordinated  into  a 
whole,  the  world  of  ideas.  This  ideal  world, 
with  all  its  superiority,  is  not  intrinsically 
alien  to  us,  but  he  who  strives  with  all  his 
might  to  attain  it  can  gain  complete  possession 
of  it  and  make  it  his  own  life  and  being.  In 
this  appropriation  of  a  real  and  perfect  world 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  HAPPINESS        341 

the  thinker  finds  a  happiness  which  is  beyond 
comparison  with  anything  else  that  life  offers. 
But  even  the  individual  life  of  man  takes 
another  course  when  a  higher  world  is  thus 
revealed  to  him :  it  is  in  particular  the  com- 
bination of  scientific  thought  with  the  forma- 
tive activity  of  art  which  everywhere  reveals 
great  tasks  and  leads  to  genuine  happiness. 
The  work  of  science  is  to  destroy  all  mere 
appearance  and  everywhere  to  throw  into  relief 
something  essential :  it  also  frees  its  disciple 
from  all  external  dependence  and  places  him 
entirely  on  his  own  basis.  Art  as  formative 
effort,  however,  finds  a  high  goal  set  before  it 
by  the  fact  that  human  life  contains  a  wealth 
of  potentialities  and  powers  which  must  some- 
how be  reconciled  with  one  another.  No  one 
of  all  these  different  potentialities  ought  to  be 
rejected  or  stunted,  but  all  ought  to  be  associ- 
ated in  carrying  out  their  common  task  in 
such  a  way  that  higher  and  lower  are  clearly 
separated,  the  former  gaining  a  secure  ascend- 
ancy while  the  latter  willingly  subordinates 


342  THE  LIFE  OF  THE  SPIRIT 

itself.  When  this  is  successfully  accomplished, 
when  all  the  diversity  of  things  is  clearly 
marked  off  and  graded,  human  life  in  itself  is 
fashioned  into  a  perfect  work  of  art.  It  is  the 
vigorous  realization  of  this  work  of  art,  the 
self-contemplation  of  man,  from  which  true 
happiness  proceeds.  In  the  possession  of  such 
happiness,  which  is  grounded  in  his  own  nature, 
man  may  feel  himself  superior  to  all  fate,  for 
this  inner  harmony  cannot  be  destroyed  or 
even  diminished  by  anything  that  comes 
from  outside.  Thus  Plato  sketches  that 
magnificent  picture  of  the  suffering  just  man, 
who  is  misjudged  and  persecuted  even  unto 
death,  but  who  through  all  the  attacks  upon 
him  actually  gains  in  inward  happiness.  On 
this  view,  further,  action  needs  no  external 
reward,  for  this  contemplation  of  inner  harmony 
contains  complete  happiness  in  itself.  The 
only  presupposition  is  that  the  inner  condition, 
while  differentiating  itself  into  harmony  and 
disharmony,  should  enter  into  feeling  and  life 
in  its  pure  and  undisguised  character,  that  the 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   HAPPINESS        343 

reflection  in  our  consciousness  should  be 
absolutely  faithful.  The  chief  distinction  of 
this  doctrine  of  happiness  lies  in  the  fact  that 
it  brings  the  internal  disposition  and  its  mani- 
festation, the  good  and  the  beautiful,  into  the 
closest  connection,  but  represents  the  whole  as 
finding  its  joy  and  motive  force  immediately 
in  itself.  Here  all  petty  calculation  of  private 
advantage,  all  thoughts  of  reward  and  punish- 
ment, have  sunk  out  of  sight. 

Aristotle  shares  this  conviction  in  all  essential 
particulars,  but  he  puts  a  peculiar  complexion 
on  it  by  another  mode  of  marking  it  off  from 
the  ordinary  conceptions  of  happiness.  The 
usual  struggle  for  happiness  is,  according  to 
him,  only  a  pursuit  of  external  goods ;  the 
devotion  of  all  one's  life  and  efforts  to  this 
pursuit  involves  an  inner  contradiction,  and 
indeed  the  deep  degradation  of  man.  For 
these  external  goods  are  after  all  only  means 
to  life ;  an  endeavour  which  is  directed  towards 
them  never  reaches  rest  and  satisfaction ;  it  is 
driven  onwards  to  infinity  and  yet  always 


344  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

remains  dependent  on  external  things ;  with 
its  pursuit  of  outward  results  it  robs  man  of 
all  inward  independence.  True  satisfaction 
can  come  only  from  an  activity  which  finds 
its  task  in  itself  and  does  not  strive  after  any- 
thing beyond  itself.  Such  an  activity  is 
reached  when  all  powers  unite  and  acquire  a 
great  depth  of  purpose  under  the  guidance  of 
reason,  when  a  strong  and  earnest  man  con- 
sciously expresses  himself  and  his  character  in 
his  actions.  But  as  the  feeling  of  happiness 
generally  corresponds  to  the  content  of  life, 
man  will  gain  all  the  greater  happiness  the 
more  successful  he  is  in  filling  his  life  with 
significance :  there  is  no  full  happiness  without 
greatness  of  soul.  Joy  in  activity,  however, 
will  on  its  side  contribute  towards  raising 
activity  to  a  higher  level,  and  thus  life  itself 
will  be  enhanced  by  happiness.  In  this  con- 
nection Aristotle  has  weighed  and  measured 
with  circumspection  and  sureness  of  touch  the 
relation  of  human  action  to  Fate.  The  activity 
which  decides  our  happiness  undoubtedly 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   HAPPINESS        345 

postulates  the  fulfilment  of  many  conditions 
and  the  co-operation  of  many  auxiliaries ;  a 
maimed  and  crippled  man  cannot  exercise  any 
full  activity,  and,  generally,  we  must  to  a 
certain  extent  be  favoured  by  circumstances 
if  we  are  to  unfold  what  is  latent  in  us.  But 
however  strongly  Aristotle  recognizes  this, 
he  does  not  believe  that  man  becomes  on  this 
account  a  plaything  of  Fate.  For  the  main 
thing  in  all  activity  is  always  the  inner  power 
and  capacity.  Though  for  its  consummation 
it  may  need  to  be  brought  on  the  stage  of  life, 
even  without  this  it  is  as  little  lost  as  the 
dramatic  poet's  work  of  art  which  is  never 
acted.  Spiritual  power  is  equal  to  dealing 
with  the  average  amount  of  suffering  and  con- 
straint which  life  presents.  Excessive  afflictions 
may  of  course  destroy  the  happiness  of  life, 
but  in  any  case  they  are  of  rare  occurrence,  and 
even  they  are  unable  to  make  a  noble  man 
really  miserable:  for  his  beauty  of  character 
shines  through  all  unhappiness. 

Thus    the    great    classical    thinkers     have 


346  THE   LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

sketched  an  ideal  of  happiness  which  has 
always  claimed  the  attention  of  humanity  as 
the  type  of  a  vigorous,  joyous,  and  noble 
scheme  of  life.  But  the  further  movement  of 
history  soon  made  it  evident  that  the  ideal 
rests  upon  definite  presuppositions  and  does 
not  overcome  certain  limitations.  It  demands 
a  pre-eminent  power  of  spiritual  creation ;  it 
assumes  not  only  that  the  soul  is  directed 
towards  the  good  but  also  that  the  spiritual 
faculty  is  a  match  for  every  obstacle ;  it  needs, 
further,  the  conviction  that  man  can  grasp  the 
complete  truth  with  his  thought  and  make  it 
the  setting  of  his  life.  But  the  beginning  of 
Hellenism  involved  a  great  revolution  which 
modified  the  relation  of  man  to  reality.  With 
the  traditional  order  of  life  shaken  to  its 
foundation,  it  became  the  supreme  necessity  to 
win  for  him  an  inner  self-sufficiency,  a  com- 
plete independence  of  and  superiority  over 
everything  which  lies  without  him.  But  this 
can  only  be  accomplished  if  his  interest  is 
dissociated  from  externals,  if  his  relation  to 


THE  PROBLEM   OF  HAPPINESS        347 

all  experiences  of  external  happiness  or  un- 
happiness  ceases  to  be  that  of  feeling  or 
suffering  and  becomes  one  of  complete  indiffer- 
ence, so  that  he  takes  refuge  entirely  in  his 
thought,  in  the  realization  of  a  cosmic  reason 
and  the  consciousness  of  an  inner  greatness. 
A  man  who  thus  gains  by  thought  a  living 
realization  of  the  totality  of  the  universe  can- 
not be  moved  or  agitated  by  anything  which 
happens  in  the  world  of  experience ;  even  if 
this  world  were  shattered  he  would  not  be 
dismayed.  The  development  of  this  spiritual 
superiority  has  greatly  strengthened  the  inner 
life  and  has  led  man  deeper  into  his  own  soul : 
it  has  supported  him  in  troubled  times  by 
rousing  the  heroic  elements  in  his  character, 
but  the  many  problems  which  as  a  whole  it 
contains  cannot  well  remain  hidden.  The 
fundamental  thought  which  here  forms  the 
basis  of  life  is  more  of  a  negative  than  of  an 
affirmative  nature ;  it  exalts  character  above 
the  world,  but  it  does  not  lead  to  the  permea- 
tion and  moulding  of  the  latter ;  hence,  how- 


348  THE   LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

ever  powerful  may  be  the  stimulus,  it  is  easy 
for  a  feeling  of  emptiness  to  arise.  Further, 
this  ideal  of  life  needs  great  and  powerful 
souls,  it  requires  heroic  energy  to  maintain 
the  fundamental  conviction  when  the  whole 
environment  contradicts  it.  Hence,  as  soon 
as  doubts  about  the  spiritual  power  of  man 
arose  and  spread,  faith  in  this  ideal  was  bound 
to  wane. 

Doubts  of  this  kind,  moreover,  continually 
gained  ground  as  the  ancient  world  ran  its 
course :  man  continually  developed  a  deeper 
sense  of  the  obscurity  of  the  world,  and  felt 
himself  continually  less  equal  to  dealing  with 
its  sharp  oppositions.  In  particular,  it  was 
the  opposition  between  spirituality  and  sensu- 
ousness  which  occupied  and  agitated  men's 
minds  to  an  ever-increasing  extent.  The  old 
harmony  between  the  spiritual  and  the  sensible 
was  replaced  by  its  opposite  as  spiritual  power 
became  deadened  and  the  life  of  the  senses 
more  refined ;  in  the  end,  this  was  intensified 
to  an  antipathy  against  all  sensuousness  and 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  HAPPINESS        349 

a  passionate  longing  somehow  to  gain  de- 
liverance from  it  and  to  participate  in  a  purer 
life.  But  man  felt  himself  much  too  weak  to 
bring  about  this  change  from  his  own  re- 
sources :  thus  a  longing  arose  for  supernatural 
help,  and  the  Deity  was  invoked  to  raise  man 
to  a  higher  life.  These  changes  destroy  the 
old  rest  and  security  ;  life  is  tossed  hither  and 
thither  between  conflicting  moods  ;  longings, 
hopes,  and  dreams  take  the  place  of  a  secure 
possession ;  the  fixed  forms  are  dissolved  and 
a  journey  begins  towards  the  distant,  the 
formless,  the  unlimited.  The  whole  is  thrown 
into  enormous  agitation  by  the  fact  that 
human  existence  is  thought  to  be  encompassed 
by  influences  proceeding  not  merely  from  good 
but  also  from  evil  spirits,  destroying  demons, 
and  that  thus  a  consciousness  of  responsi- 
bility, indeed  a  torturing  fear  of  eternal  punish- 
ment, makes  itself  felt.  In  such  a  situation 
deliverance  and  happiness  can  be  hoped  for 
only  from  the  assistance  of  a  supramundane 
Deity  ;  such  a  Deity  must  come  to  the  rescue 


350  THE  LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

in  a  miraculous  manner  and  give  man  a  share 
in  his  perfection.  In  order  to  reach  this  it 
is  necessary  for  man  to  come  out  of  himself, 
and  a  condition  of  ecstasy  becomes  the  highest 
level  of  life.  As  regards  the  sensuous,  however, 
the  object  to  be  aimed  at  is  the  highest 
possible  degree  of  renunciation,  a  strict 
asceticism.  In  the  whole  scheme  the  position 
of  humanity  is  wrapped  in  deep  gloom,  but 
it  is  precisely  from  this  sense  of  darkness  that 
there  proceeds  the  strongest  impulse  towards 
liberation  from  all  misery,  towards  the  attain- 
ment of  full  and  vigorous  happiness.  In  the 
wide  field  of  existence  this  endeavour  gives 
rise  to  a  remarkable  situation,  in  which  the 
most  various  elements,  higher  and  lower, 
superstition  and  the  scientific  impulse,  greed 
for  happiness  and  willingness  for  self-sacrifice, 
meet  in  a  confused  medley.  It  needs  a  great 
personality  to  wrest  from  this  chaos  a  pure 
ideal  of  life  and  happiness  :  such  a  personality 
appeared  in  Plotinus. 

In  the  change  of  direction  which  was  due 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   HAPPINESS        351 

to  Plotinus  the  essential  point  is  that  here 
religion  is  no  longer,  as  it  had  been  to  the 
average  man,  a  mere  means  to  subjective 
happiness,  but  that  it  promises  to  make  some- 
thing essentially  new  out  of  man  and  to  get 
rid  of  all  the  pettiness  of  a  separate  existence. 
What  is  new  is  that  the  whole  universe 
appears  as  a  single  life,  which  always  remains 
self-contained  even  when  it  unfolds  into  multi- 
plicity, and  that  at  the  same  time  it  seems 
possible  by  means  of  thought  to  transport 
oneself  into  this  unity  of  the  All  and  thence 
to  regulate  the  whole  of  one's  life.  The 
winning  of  such  an  inner  unity  with  the  All 
promises  an  incomparably  higher  life  and 
incomparably  higher  happiness.  For  union 
with  the  ultimate  basis  of  the  All  enables  man 
to  gain  the  whole  of  infinity  and  eternity  for 
his  own  possession,  and  to  comprehend  all 
oppositions.  At  the  same  time  he  attains 
thereby  a  purely  inward  life,  since  here  all  the 
value  of  action  lies  in  its  relation  to  this 
cosmic  unity ;  all  external  achievements,  on 


352  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

the  other  hand,  become  completely  indifferent. 
A  further  result  is  complete  independence  of 
fate,  since  all  experiences  of  joy  and  suffering 
fail  to  reach  this  height  of  life.  It  is  true 
that  such  a  life  involves  a  constant  movement 
in  virtue  of  its  relation  to  eternal  being,  but 
in  contrast  to  the  rush  and  bustle  of  the  world 
it  appears  as  perfect  rest,  as  profound  peace. 
Participation  in  such  an  inner  life,  which  rises 
superior  to  the  world,  must  further  the  es- 
sential development  of  psychic  life.  As  this 
primary  unity  lies  above  all  special  differentia- 
tion, man  cannot  attain  to  it  unless  he  is 
able  to  rise  above  all  diversity  of  psychical 
activities  and  co-ordinate  himself  into  a  unity 
superior  to  all  differentiation.  The  pursuit 
of  this  path  leads  to  the  development  of  a  life 
purely  of  the  soul  and  feeling,  a  freely  soaring 
disposition,  untrammelled  by  material  ties. 
Life  seems  here  lightened  of  all  weight  and  en- 
tirely transported  into  the  pure  ether  of  infinity. 
Hence  it  may  well  be  conceived  that  in  the 
development  of  such  a  life  Plotinus  experi- 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   HAPPINESS        353 

ences  a  rapturous  bliss,  and  that  this  bliss 
carries  him  far  above  every  other  happiness 
which  life  can  offer.  It  is  equally  intelligible 
that  he  does  not  believe  in  the  possibility  of 
winning  and  forcing  this  life  by  personal  toil 
and  labour,  but  that  he  regards  any  beginning 
on  the  part  of  man  as  necessarily  preceded  by 
a  revelation  of  the  absolute  life,  which  has  to 
be  quietly  waited  for.  "  Men  must  remain 
in  quietude  until  it  appears,  and  must  look 
for  it  as  the  eye  awaits  the  rising  of  the  sun." 
Thus  Plotinus  by  this  appropriation  of  a 
universal  life  carries  out  a  transference  both 
of  being  and  of  happiness  into  the  purely 
inward  life :  it  is  here  first  clearly  seen  what 
power  the  thought  of  union  with  the  All  is 
able  to  gain  over  the  human  soul.  But  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  there  is  no  path  leading 
from  this  inwardness  back  to  the  wide  field  of 
life ;  the  spiritual  rapture  cannot  transform 
itself  into  fruitful  work  and  permeate  the 
whole  of  life.  Hence  in  the  end  there  remains 

a   cleavage  between  the  height  of  the  inner 

23 


354  THE   LIFE  OF  THE  SPIRIT 

life  and  the  rest  of  existence ;  there  are  only 
particular  moments  when  the  thought  of  the 
All  takes  complete  possession  of  man,  fills 
him  with  ecstatic  rapture,  and  enables  him 
both  to  participate  in  a  bliss  beyond  descrip- 
tion and  to  forget  everything  else. 

The  further  limitations  in  the  work  of 
Plotinus  we  can  best  estimate  if  we  keep  in 
mind  his  connection  with  the  whole  ancient 
world.  For  although  with  him  philosophy 
takes  a  turn  towards  religion  and  pure  inward- 
ness, he  does  not  forsake  the  connections  of 
ancient  life.  This  life  regards  man  and  all 
his  efforts  as  an  item  in  a  given  world  which 
is  complete  in  itself  and  rounded  off:  the 
cardinal  task  for  man  is  to  master  this  world 
and  find  his  place  in  it.  Thought,  which 
connects  him  with  the  All,  thus  becomes  the 
guiding  force  in  spiritual  life ;  but  just  as  this 
thought  arises  in  the  soul  of  every  individual, 
it  is  likewise  the  concern  of  every  individual  to 
carve  his  own  way  to  happiness.  Man  is  not 
dependent  on  others,  neither  does  he  work  for 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   HAPPINESS        355 

others  ;  there  is  here  no  inner  solidarity  between 
men,  no  assimilation  of  another  or  of  the 
whole  into  one's  own  inner  being ;  the  destiny 
of  mankind  is  not  lived  out  at  each  individual 
point,  nor  is  any  activity  entered  upon  for  the 
elevation  of  the  general  condition,  but  as  the 
individual  here  stands  entirely  on  his  own 
basis,  so  he  lives  only  for  himself  and  even  in 
his  happiness  is  inwardly  lonely ;  there  is  here 
no  inner  world  encompassing  men  and  form- 
ing a  bond  of  union  between  them.  Hence  it  is 
not  to  be  wondered  at  if  the  great  differences 
between  individuals,  which  human  life  un- 
deniably shows,  are  accepted  as  final  and  com- 
pletely control  the  system  of  values.  An 
aristocracy  of  the  spirit  is  sharply  distinguished 
from  the  rest  of  humanity :  it  alone,  with  its 
spiritual  power  and  greatness  of  character,  has 
any  share  in  true  happiness  ;  such  happiness  is 
refused  to  the  others,  and  this  refusal  causes 
no  pain  to  those  on  the  higher  level.  The 
rigidity  and  hardness  of  the  whole  also  be- 
comes apparent  in  its  estimate  and  treatment 


356  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

of  pain.  Greek  thinkers  have  by  no  means 
treated  pain  lightly,  as  seems  to  have  been 
thought  in  former  times,  but  they  have  dis- 
played the  greatest  reluctance  to  admit  it 
among  the  fundamental  constituents  of  life. 
As  thought  was  here  concerned  as  a  general 
rule  to  prove  that  the  world,  in  spite  of  all 
the  pain  obviously  existing  in  it,  is  a  kingdom 
of  reason,  so  the  highest  task  in  life  seemed 
to  be  to  prohibit  all  approach  of  pain  to  one- 
self, to  put  on  against  it  armour  of  proof 
through  which  it  cannot  possibly  pierce. 
Thus  immense  complication  was  bound  to 
arise  when,  after  all,  the  sense  of  pain  grew 
continually  stronger  and  refused  to  be  treated 
as  a  mere  appearance,  or  to  be  kept  at  a  wide 
distance  from  the  inmost  part  of  life.  That 
joyous  doctrine  was  then  in  some  risk  of  being 
transformed  into  its  exact  opposite.  The 
Greek  ideal  of  happiness,  with  all  its  serious- 
ness, is  not  on  the  whole  free  from  an 
audacious  optimism.  To  find  perfect  happi- 
ness in  activity  is  something  not  to  be  hoped 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  HAPPINESS        357 

for  apart  from  the  conviction  that  such  activity 
has  been  from  the  first  exerted  within  the 
sphere  of  truth,  and  that,  provided  all  powers 
be  strained  to  the  utmost,  it  reaches  its  goal 
with  absolute  certainty.  Thus,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  opinion  of  the  ancient  world  is  that 
a  well-directed  and  vigorous  struggle  for  truth 
must  undoubtedly  reach  truth,  and  that  all 
spiritual  power  is  certainly  working  towards 
the  good.  There  are  as  yet  no  shattering 
doubts  and  inner  dissensions  in  the  spiritual 
life  itself,  or,  where  they  appear,  they  are 
thrust  into  the  background  and  attention  is 
averted  from  them.  The  struggle  for  truth 
of  the  old  thinkers  presupposes  the  rationality 
of  the  universe :  they  neither  appreciate  the 
irrationality  of  human  existence  at  its  full 
value  nor  fight  against  it  with  all  their  powers. 
It  is  this  irrationality  of  existence  which 
affords  the  starting-point  for  the  Christian 
pursuit  of  happiness ;  it  is  here  for  the  first 
time  that  it  gains  full  recognition.  For  it  is 
not  this  or  that  item  in  the  world  which  here 


358  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

seems  wrong,  but  the  whole  condition  is  full 
of  confusion  and  disorder ;  the  perversion, 
however,  reaches  its  highest  point  in  the 
ethical  alienation  of  man  from  God,  and  it  is 
here  that  the  transformation  too  must  begin. 
But  where  the  mischief  goes  right  down  to 
the  root,  and  where  a  renewal  of  the  whole 
of  existence  is  requisite,  the  new  departure 
cannot  proceed  from  the  private  resources  of 
man  but  only  from  divine  love  and  grace; 
it  is  the  fundamental  conviction  of  Christianity, 
however,  that  such  a  love  has  really  been 
made  manifest  and  that  it  promises  deliverance 
to  every  individual.  As  all  evil  arose  out  of 
the  separation  from  God,  so  the  highest  good 
can  consist  in  nothing  else  but  re-union  with 
God :  but  this  affords  a  bliss  incomparably 
superior  to  every  other  form  of  happiness. 
For  here  man  obtains  a  share  in  the  whole 
wealth  of  divine  life ;  here  he  is  entirely  trans- 
ported into  a  kingdom  of  love,  of  childlike 
trust,  of  saving  grace.  Moreover  his  soul 
acquires  a  peculiar  state  of  tension,  since  the 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  HAPPINESS        359 

initial  situation,  above  which  he  is  raised,  does 
not  simply  disappear  but  persists  within  the 
new  life,  which  thus  runs  its  course  amid  sharp 
contrasts.  An  undertone  of  pain  accompanies 
the  bliss,  and  may  even  seem  to  be  enhanced 
by  the  presence  of  the  higher  elements ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  happiness  gains  by  the 
contrast  both  in  intimacy  and  stability.  Placed 
amid  such  contrasts  the  soul  remains  in  con- 
stant inner  movement :  happiness  cannot  here 
be  thought  of  as  a  possession  acquired  once 
for  all,  and  the  condition  of  man  as  a  state 
of  perfection,  but  it  is  only  an  inner  superiority 
to  the  whole  realm  of  conflict  which  is  offered, 
and  it  is  in  the  inmost  ground  of  his  being 
that  man  is  absorbed  into  divine  life.  The 
point  of  superiority  of  this  new  life  and  the 
corresponding  happiness  over  everything  which 
could  be  attained  in  Hellenism,  even  by  the 
path  of  religion,  is  that  here  a  true  inner 
world  arises.  What  makes  this  possible  is 
that  here  the  divine  is  not  conceived  in  the 
first  place  as  the  unchangeable  unity,  the 


360  THE   LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

essential  being,  but  as  the  ideal  of  personality, 
as  moral  perfection,  as  almighty  love.  The 
relation  to  such  a  Being  may  rise  to  the 
highest  power  and  warmth,  the  inwardness 
of  thought  may  be  heightened  to  the  intimacy 
of  the  full  personality :  man  in  general,  and 
each  man  in  particular,  may  know  that  he  is 
supported  and  guarded  by  eternal  love.  In 
this  realm  all  differences  of  spiritual  capacity 
disappear  and  everything  depends  on  the  force 
and  faithfulness  of  the  character,  on  the  ethical 
direction  of  the  nature,  which  everyone  is  able 
to  display. 

The  particular  character  of  the  whole  is 
especially  prominent  in  the  treatment  of  pain, 
which  is  in  flat  contradiction  to  the  Greek 
method.  Here,  where  man  cannot  find  his 
way  to  the  heights  until  his  nature  has 
undergone  a  mighty  convulsion,  and  where 
the  most  difficult  problems  concern  the  soul 
itself,  it  is  impossible  to  follow  the  Greek 
thinkers  in  expelling  pain  and  keeping  it 
wholly  at  a  distance  from  the  inner  life. 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  HAPPINESS        361 

On  the  contrary,  pain  here  becomes  indis- 
pensable for  the  deepening  of  life  and  as  a 
preparation  for  the  good :  indeed,  the  assertion 
is  actually  made  that  in  pain  itself  there  is  a 
blessedness,  so  that  those  who  suffer  pain  are 
praised  as  blessed.  In  this  connection  those 
who  take  an  external  view  might  think  chiefly 
of  the  joy  of  a  future  life,  to  which  pain 
forms  a  mere  passage,  but  the  more  spiritually 
minded  have  sought  to  show  that  the  trans- 
formation of  soul  which  proceeds  from 
suffering  contains  in  itself  a  deepening  and 
strengthening  of  life.  According  to  Gregory 
of  Nyssa  a  good  becomes  manifest  in  pain 
itself;  the  absence  of  the  good  could  not 
move  us  to  such  strong  and  passionate  grief 
if  it  were  not  something  pertaining  to  our 
being;  hence  it  is  precisely  distress  of  such 
a  kind  which  gives  us  assurance  of  a  depth 
of  our  nature.  In  pursuance  of  this  line  of 
thought  a  special  unhappiness  may  be  ascribed 
to  the  man  who  now  feels  himself  happy,  for 
it  is  just  this  which  circumscribes  his  life  and 


362 

prevents  it  from  reaching  further  depths.  In 
the  same  way  the  strong  feeling  of  the  im- 
measurable pain  of  existence  is  for  Augustine 
a  sure  sign  that  the  present  is  not  the  final 
and  complete  existence,  that,  rather,  we 
belong  in  the  ultimate  basis  of  our  being  to 
another  and  higher  world.  In  a  similar  way 
from  the  agitating  and  shattering  power  of 
doubt  he  infers  that  truth  does  subsist  and 
has  a  close  connection  with  our  being ;  non- 
possession  accompanied  by  a  painful  feeling 
of  want  everywhere  attests  for  him  the  im- 
possibility of  renunciation,  the  active  operation 
of  a  higher  life.  Thus  Christianity  in  its 
struggle  for  happiness  has  taken  up  negation 
into  the  heart  of  life,  and  thereby  for  the  first 
time  made  life  truly  superior  to  it.  If  there 
is  a  consequent  danger  that  life  may  tend  too 
much  towards  softness,  mildness,  and  gentle- 
ness, this  one-sidedness  is  counteracted  by  a 
strong  impulse  towards  activity  proceeding 
from  the  innermost  being  of  Christianity: 
did  it  not  come  to  renew  the  world,  to  put 


THE  PROBLEM   OF  HAPPINESS        363 

humanity  on  its  feet  again,  to  build  up  a 
kingdom  of  God  even  on  earth  ?  It  promises, 
therefore,  not  merely  deliverance  from  pain 
and  guilt  but  also  the  revelation  of  a  new 
and  higher  life.  But  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  historical  circumstances  have  permitted 
this  affirmative  side  of  Christianity  to  develop 
to  a  much  smaller  extent  than  the  negative : 
once  more  it  was  the  influence,  so  often 
described,  of  that  weary  and  languid  period 
which  gave  the  one  side  an  unwarrantable 
predominance.  Complete  deliverance  from 
suffering  and  all  the  confused  bustle  of  the 
world,  rest  and  peace  of  mind — these  became 
the  highest  of  aims. 

However  convinced  we  may  be  that  this 
development  of  Christianity  which  holds  aloof 
from  the  world  does  not  extend  to  its  inmost 
essence,  and  that  it  leaves  open  the  possibility 
of  other  developments,  it  at  first  gained  the 
victory  over  them  and  ruled  for  long  ages. 
The  difficulty  about  this  kind  of  Christianity, 
which  has  met  us  under  many  different  forms, 


364  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

can  be  clearly  seen  also  in  connection  with  the 
problem  of  happiness.  For  it  seeks  happiness 
too  much  in  separation  from  the  world ;  it  is 
in  danger  of  sinking  into  weakness  by  not 
grappling  with  things  courageously  but  only 
rising  superior  to  them  in  the  mind.  Since 
feeling  is  not  sufficiently  transformed  into 
action,  it  is  impossible  for  happiness  to  inform 
and  animate  the  whole  of  life.  Another 
drawback  arises  from  the  fact  that  the 
emphasis  on  suffering  easily  leads  to  a 
lingering  over  mere  suffering,  indeed  to  a 
sentimental  revelling  in  pain,  such  as  we 
see  especially  in  religious  poetry  and  often  in 
an  unedifying  form.  A  further  consideration 
is  that  a  happiness  which  is  thus  divorced 
from  the  rest  of  life  must  become  insecure 
as  soon  as  the  whole  of  this  religious 
systematization  of  life  begins  in  any  way  to 
be  doubted:  but  we  all  know  that  such 
doubts  did  arise  and  have  spread.  The 
history  of  Christianity  shows,  it  is  true,  much 
diversity  on  all  these  points :  the  medieval 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  HAPPINESS        365 

system  of  Catholicism  appears  in  very  different 
hues ;  still  there  is  no  mistaking  the  wide 
divergence  between  the  predominantly  passive 
character  of  the  middle  ages  and  the  greater 
activity  which  proceeded  from  the  Reformation 
and  which  has  reacted  even  on  Catholicism. 
For  the  Reformation,  in  imposing  the  strong 
contrasts  of  the  Christian  life  on  the  soul  of 
every  individual,  in  rousing  in  it  a  greater 
stir  of  emotion  and  summoning  it  to  more 
vigorous  activity,  could  not  but  effect  an 
inner  transformation  of  happiness  as  well. 
But  in  spite  of  everything  here  also  happiness 
remained  a  matter  of  the  inner  consciousness 
superior  to  the  world ;  it  rested  too  much  on 
a  hopeful  faith  in  a  new  order  for  it  to  ally 
itself  with  any  valiant  and  vigorous  attempt 
to  grapple  with  and  transform  the  surround- 
ing world.  Hence  it  always  retained  a  certain 
weakness  and  tenderness  ;  it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand how  a  period  filled  with  a  more  vigorous 
vitality  and  pleasure  in  activity  pressed  beyond 
such  a  conception. 


366  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

This  is  what  happened  to  a  large  extent  in 
the  modern  period.  In  this  period  man  seeks 
happiness  not  so  much  by  retreating  into  the 
sanctuary  of  the  soul  as  by  coming  out  of 
himself,  unfolding  and  utilizing  his  powers :  a 
great  deal  here  depends  on  the  conviction  that 
man  is  not  assigned  a  limited  capacity  by 
nature  and  fate,  but  can  grow  without  limit, 
continually  develop  new  powers,  and  set  him- 
self higher  and  higher  aims.  Nothing  seems 
to  give  a  clearer  proof  of  man's  greatness,  and 
indeed  of  his  relationship  with  the  Deity,  than 
this  capacity  for  progress  to  infinity.  On  the 
very  threshold  of  the  modern  period  it  is 
absolutely  clear  that  this  faith  in  progress 
brings  with  it  an  essentially  different  sense  of 
happiness,  a  more  vigorous  and  joyous  condi- 
tion of  soul  than  was  known  to  the  middle 
ages.  Thus  we  read  in  Nicolaus  of  Cusa,  the 
first  modern  thinker :  "  To  be  able  to  know 
ever  more  and  more  without  end,  this  is  our 
likeness  to  the  eternal  wisdom.  Man  always 
desires  to  know  better  what  he  knows  and  to 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  HAPPINESS        367 

love  more  what  he  loves,  and  the  whole  world 
is  not  sufficient  for  him  because  it  does  not 
satisfy  his  craving  for  knowledge."  With 
such  a  growth  of  endeavour  the  spirit  also 
must  grow  in  itself :  "  Like  a  fire  which  is 
kindled  from  the  flint-stone,  the  spirit  can 
grow  without  limit  through  the  light  which 
streams  from  it."  This  feeling  is  also  expressed 
in  the  succeeding  centuries  with  particular 
clearness  in  the  thinkers  who  are  the  principal 
representatives  of  the  modern  movement. 
Thus  Leibniz  is  filled  with  a  vigorous  faith  in 
progress  and  derives  from  it  a  sense  of  happi- 
ness and  joy.  Thus  even  Hegel  is  carried 
safely  over  all  the  oppositions  and  vexations 
of  existence  by  the  consciousness  of  the 
constant  progress  of  the  whole. 

But  this  faith  in  progress  gains  in  weight 
and  content  principally  because  the  movement 
does  not  merely  increase  the  powers  of  the 
individual  subject  but  develops  the  general 
situation  and  makes  reality  more  and  more 
rational.  A  central  position  is  here  obtained 


368  THE  LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

by  work.  In  work  an  activity  is  recognized 
which  brings  us  into  the  closest  connection 
with  things,  since  it  can  take  up  their  nature 
and  necessity  into  itself  and  conform  to  them. 
While  man  thus  binds  himself  more  closely  to 
his  cosmic  environment  by  means  of  work,  he 
has  a  right  to  hope  that  by  his  efforts  the 
condition  of  reality  may  be  raised  and  all  the 
more  so  because  modern  work  has  tended  to 
form  extensive  complexes,  has  united  the 
powers  of  individuals  more  closely,  and  by 
uniting  them  has  made  them  capable  of 
achieving  incomparably  higher  results.  But 
if  man  has  thus  gained  in  work  a  means  to 
advance  the  condition  of  the  world,  it  has 
given  him  at  the  same  time  stability  in  his 
own  nature,  it  has  given  his  life  a  broader 
foundation  and  a  secure  position  in  face  of  the 
world.  Hence  for  the  modern  man  happiness 
is  closely  bound  up  with  work ;  here  for  the 
first  time  work,  which  was  put  in  the  back- 
ground by  the  earlier  systems  of  life,  comes  to 
be  fully  appreciated,  and  by  combination  with 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  HAPPINESS        369 

it  happiness  becomes  stronger,  calmer,  and 
richer :  it  is  now  able  to  penetrate  the  whole 
range  of  life. 

This  modification  of  work  and  of  happiness 
can  be  followed  out  hi  different  directions. 
We  see  it,  above  all,  in  the  building  up  of 
civilization,  that  is,  a  condition  of  life  peculiar 
to  man  as  opposed  to  mere  nature.  By  valiant 
struggle  with  the  apparently  alien  world  man 
extends  the  boundaries  of  his  domain  and  con- 
structs for  himself  his  own  sphere  of  life.  It 
is  science  especially  which  takes  the  lead  in 
this  movement  and  thus  proves  its  power  over 
things.  It  is  especially  clear  in  connection 
with  science  how  the  individual  in  the  modern 
period  has  to  fit  himself  into  a  whole  and  to 
carry  out  his  work  in  the  ranks.  But  if 
definite  limits  are  thus  assigned  to  every 
individual,  he  may  cherish  the  consciousness 
that  in  his  place  he  is  indispensable,  and  by 
his  activity  is  furthering  the  construction  of  the 
whole :  "  Many  shall  run  to  and  fro  and  know- 
ledge shall  be  increased"  (Bacon,  with  refer- 

24 


370  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

ence  to  a  passage  in  Daniel).1  In  a  still  bolder 
flight  of  thought  Leibniz  declared  that  we 
men,  like  little  gods,  in  virtue  of  our  reason, 
are  able  to  imitate  the  architect  of  the  world 
and  promote  the  welfare  of  the  whole.  Man 
is  "  not  a  part  but  an  image  of  the  Deity,  a 
representation  of  the  universe,  a  citizen  of  the 
divine  city."  If  activity  here  seems  to  be 
principally  directed  towards  serving  the  pro- 
gress of  the  universe,  at  the  same  time  there 
shows  itself  in  modern  society  an  eager  and 
active  endeavour  to  raise  the  condition  of 
humanity,  to  eliminate  as  far  as  possible  all 
irrationality  from  human  relations,  and  to  give 
more  and  more  strength  to  reason.  For  here 
the  conviction  no  longer  prevails  that  the 
condition  of  human  affairs  has  been  established 
once  for  all  by  the  will  of  God  and  must  be 
accepted  by  us  as  an  unchangeable  fate,  but 
here  also  everything  appears  to  be  in  flux  and 
capable  of  enhancement.  Thus  activity  here 

1  Bacon,  De  Aug.  Scient.,  II.,  x. :  "  Plurimi  pertransibunt 
et  augebitur  scientia."     Cf.  Dan.  xii.  4. 


THE  PROBLEM   OF  HAPPINESS        371 

finds  high  tasks  to  perform,  all  the  more  since 
"everything  in  human  form"  becomes  an 
object  of  sympathy,  indeed  a  growing  feeling 
of  solidarity  makes  every  individual  seem 
responsible  for  all  the  distress  and  injustice 
around  him.  Much  darkness  and  suffering 
is  now  really  felt  for  the  first  time,  but  it  is 
unable  to  overwhelm  man  because  his  power 
to  cope  with  the  misery  can  increase  indefinitely. 
The  feeling  of  power  and  happiness  must  grow 
to  an  immeasurable  extent  if  man  can  thus 
take  up  the  battle  with  circumstances  and 
bring  about  a  new  condition  of  the  world. 

In  this  movement  as  a  whole  the  first  thing 
which  attracts  our  notice  is  its  larger  and 
broader  effects,  but  the  movement  is  no  less 
significant  in  its  relation  to  what  is  small  and 
individual.  For  it  is  an  essential  feature  of 
modern  life  that  every  individual  is  recognized 
as  furnishing  a  specific  problem :  at  every 
point  his  dormant  power  must  be  awakened, 
the  different  elements  whose  previous  state  is 
a  confused  medley  must  be  adjusted  to  one 


372  THE   LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

another  and  subordinated  to  a  unity  which  is 
able  to  raise  everything  to  a  higher  level.  In 
the  development  of  this  effort  the  individual 
finds  an  exalted  happiness  in  spite  of  all  the 
toil  and  labour.  For  he  here  becomes  a  world 
of  his  own  which  possesses  a  value  for  the 
whole  just  because  it  is  unique.  This  in- 
dividualizing process  extends  to  all  human 
relations,  a  uniform  development  is  every- 
where avoided,  and  by  the  cultivation  of 
individuality  a  specific  task  and  joy  is  revealed. 
In  the  whole  there  is  apparent  a  powerful 
vital  impulse  which  is  occasionally  heightened 
to  fierce  passion.  To  be  sure,  an  objective 
compulsion  and  law  is  also  at  work  and  pre- 
vents a  lapse  into  merely  subjective  excite- 
ment :  resignation,  too,  is  not  wanting,  since  at 
a  given  moment  every  achievement  has  de- 
finite limits,  and  since,  further,  the  individual 
cannot  accomplish  anything  by  himself  but 
only  together  with  the  others  and  in  sub- 
ordination to  a  common  aim.  But  all  the 
limitations  and  restrictions  at  the  individual 


point  and  the  particular  moment  are  out- 
weighed by  the  faith  in  a  better  future  and 
in  the  infinitely  increasing  power  of  the 
human  race.  This  faith  is  as  indispensable  to 
the  modern  period  as  that  in  the  harmony  of 
the  universe  was  to  antiquity  and  that  in  a 
benevolent  Deity  to  the  middle  ages.  Such 
faith  in  progress  enables  the  modern  man  to 
bear  all  his  labours  cheerfully  and  to  preserve 
a  vigorous  sense  of  happiness  in  the  midst  of 
all  his  work  and  care.  It  seems  to  give  life 
an  absolutely  positive  content  and  human 
happiness  a  sure  foundation. 

We  know  to  what  a  magnificent  develop- 
ment of  life  this  movement  has  led,  but  we 
also  know  what  complications  have  arisen 
from  it  and  how  these  complications  are  placed 
in  the  foreground  by  the  consciousness  of  the 
present.  The  faith  in  progress  which  we  have 
described  has  been  able  to  fill  the  whole  of 
life  and  make  it  happy  only  in  virtue  of  the 
conviction  that  human  activity  could  pene- 


374  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

trate  things  to  their  foundations  and  enable 
man  to  appropriate  them  completely ;  but 
whether  this  really  takes  place  became  open  to 
stronger  and  stronger  doubt.  Such  doubts 
first  affect  science,  the  leading  force  in 
modern  culture.  While  the  height  of  the 
Enlightenment  was  absolutely  convinced  of  its 
ability  to  fathom  things  to  the  very  bottom, 
Kant  has  demonstrated  to  us  with  irresistible 
force  the  limitations  of  our  knowledge.  Far 
beyond  the  domain  of  philosophy,  however, 
the  conviction  has  become  established  in  the 
nineteenth  century  that  behind  the  work  of 
our  thought  there  lies  a  world  of  things  which 
remains  inaccessible,  and  that  the  mutual 
relations  of  things  are  all  that  we  can  hope  to 
ascertain.  We  cannot  explain  and  understand 
but  only  determine  and  describe.  Hence  we 
are  cut  off  from  truth  in  the  sense  in  which  it 
admits  us  to  the  essence  of  things  and  frees 
us  from  the  narrowness  of  a  merely  human 
conceptual  world.  But  what  applies  to  truth 
applies  also  to  the  whole  of  culture.  It  has 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  HAPPINESS        375 

been  brought  home  to  us  more  and  more  that, 
however  much  we  are  able  to  alter  and  im- 
prove in  the  external  relations  of  things,  we 
do  not  thereby  attain  an  essentially  new  life 
and  a  higher  kind  of  being :  all  the  progress 
of  civilization  has  resulted  in  little  genuine 
culture  and  little  development  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  soul.  We  cannot  avoid  asking  the 
question  whether  such  an  activity  on  the  mere 
surface  of  things  is  worth  the  enormous  toil 
and  labour  which  it  costs. 

Similar  misgivings  are  also  aroused  by  our 
relation  to  man.  The  modern  movement 
rested  on  a  firm  belief  in  man's  efficiency  and 
natural  goodness :  it  seemed  that,  if  only 
ample  room  were  provided  for  the  full  de- 
velopment of  his  powers,  everything  would 
shape  itself  for  the  best  and  a  kingdom  of 
reason  would  be  established  in  the  sphere  of 
humanity.  Now,  in  fact,  deliverance  from  all 
kinds  of  constraint  has  been  secured  and 
human  powers  have  been  unfolded  as  never 
before  ;  but  can  we  shut  our  eyes  to  all  the 


376  THE  LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

complications,  struggles,  and  aberrations  which 
have  proceeded  from  this  deliverance  ?  At  the 
beginning  of  the  modern  period  the  conception 
of  humanity  included  an  emphatic  judgment 
of  value:  to  develop  the  human  element  in 
man  still  seemed  to  be  at  our  classical  period 
to  raise  life  to  a  proud  height,  but  now  we  are 
more  conscious  of  what  is  petty  and  mean  in 
man  ;  we  perceive  sharp  conflicts  in  his  being, 
we  find  him  not  merely  inadequate  for  the 
tasks  which  his  own  nature  sets  him,  but  we  see 
his  liberated  spiritual  powers  to  a  large  extent 
enlisted  in  the  service  of  selfishness  and,  in 
general,  of  pettily  human  interests,  and 
thereby  diverted  from  their  true  ends.  Hence 
it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  if  there  is  aroused 
a  longing  for  deliverance  from  the  pettiness  of 
man,  a  craving  for  greatness ;  but  it  must  be 
confessed  that  as  a  rule  these  ambitions 
quickly  succumb  again  to  the  influence  of 
pettiness  and  vanity.  In  such  a  situation  how 
could  it  fill  us  with  assured  confidence  and 
pure  happiness  to  work  for  the  improvement 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  HAPPINESS        377 

of  the  human  situation  ?  The  contradictions 
which  are  here  involved  fail  to  be  fully  realized 
at  the  present  day  simply  because  estimates  of 
man  which  belong  to  older  schemes  of  life  still 
retain  their  influence  although  they  have  no 
foundation  in  our  period.  The  religious  esti- 
mate of  man  as  a  "seed-corn  of  eternity"  and  the 
object  of  infinite  love  still  retains  its  influence ; 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  faith  in  reason 
which  was  characteristic  of  the  Enlightenment, 
man  appears  as  belonging  to  a  kingdom  of 
reason,  and  in  virtue  of  his  freedom  incompar- 
ably superior  to  all  mere  nature ;  but  religion 
has  been  shaken  and  faith  in  reason  has  waned, 
and  hence  in  the  end  this  estimate  cannot 
possibly  be  maintained.  But  if  it  is  seriously 
meant  to  transform  man  into  a  mere  item  in 
a  rounded-off  natural  world,  this  does  away 
with  all  possibility  of  bringing  any  counter- 
acting influence  to  bear  on  this  state  of  im- 
mediate existence,  all  possibility  of  inner  eleva- 
tion, and  we  do  not  see  how  the  most  distant 
future  can  produce  any  change  in  this  respect. 


378  THE   LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

These  complications  extend  also  into  the 
sphere  of  individual  existence,  the  full  re- 
cognition of  which  was  a  leading  feature  in 
the  modern  movement  of  culture.  Certainly 
much  stimulus  and  pleasure  still  arise  from 
the  activity  of  individuals,  but  the  foundation 
has  been  overthrown  which  gave  these  en- 
deavours a  significant  content  and  an  assured 
direction.  Formerly  the  individual  seemed 
to  be  valuable  and  the  work  expended  on  his 
education  profitable  because  in  him  infinite 
life  strove  to  express  itself  in  a  unique  way, 
because,  therefore,  every  individual  might 
hope  that  the  development  of  his  own  nature 
advanced  the  condition  of  the  universe.  But 
since  life  is  now  more  and  more  exclusively 
concentrated  in  the  visible  sphere,  we  have 
become  continually  more  uncertain  of  this 
foundation ;  but,  if  the  individual  is  com- 
pletely tied  to  the  sphere  of  immediate  ex- 
istence, his  unlimited  development  must  lead 
both  to  severe  collisions  with  other  individuals 
and  mutual  hostility,  and  also  to  crude  sel- 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   HAPPINESS        379 

fishness  or  even  complacent  vanity.  Once 
thought  has  embraced  all  these  points  in  a 
single  survey,  the  emptiness  and  unedifying 
character  of  the  whole  cannot  possibly  escape 
notice ;  and  then  the  solution  of  the  problem 
of  happiness  can  no  longer  be  expected  from 
the  fullest  possible  development  and  recogni- 
tion of  all  individuals. 

These  misgivings  are  further  increased  by 
the  modern  development  of  work  and  the 
urgency  with  which  its  problems  are  thrust 
into  the  foreground.  At  the  beginning  work 
still  stood  in  close  connection  with  the  soul 
of  man :  the  individual  could  take  a  pride 
and  joy  in  its  progress  because  he  saw  his 
own  product  in  it ;  at  the  same  time  it  still 
possessed  a  restful  character,  it  set  life  in 
motion  but  the  motion  as  yet  was  not  feverish 
or  violent ;  it  still  afforded  periods  of  leisure 
which  permitted  men  to  review  the  whole 
and  to  transform  it  into  a  joyous  possession. 
And  now  what  a  change !  By  forming 
gigantic  complexes  work  has  severed  itself 


380  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

more  and  more  from  the  soul  of  the  individual 
and  goes  its  way  unconcerned  for  his  weal  or 
woe ;  owing  to  its  being  at  the  same  time 
more  and  more  specialized  and  differentiated, 
the  part  which  the  individual  has  in  his  field 
of  vision  and  under  his  own  control  becomes 
smaller  and  smaller.  Hence  his  psychical 
power  also  is  developed  only  in  a  certain 
direction  while  the  rest  remains  unemployed 
and  undeveloped.  To  this  must  be  added 
the  speeding-up  process  by  which  modern 
work  has  been  more  and  more  invaded ;  it 
forces  man  to  be  always  on  his  guard  and 
to  hold  his  powers  in  constant  readiness  for 
fresh  efforts ;  this  life  must  bind  man  hand 
and  foot  to  the  temporary  situation,  keep 
him  in  a  state  of  breathless  tension  and 
transform  him  more  and  more  into  a  mere 
struggler  for  existence.  It  cannot  be  denied 
that  the  whole  has  led  to  prodigious  results, 
but  it  becomes  clearer  and  clearer  that  the 
man  as  a  whole  can  find  no  happiness  in  such 
a  life.  But  if  this  work  thus  strains  him  to 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  HAPPINESS        381 

the  utmost  without  leading  him  through  all 
his  toil  and  agitation  to  any  genuine  happiness, 
and  if  at  the  same  time  it  becomes  clearer 
and  clearer  that,  in  spite  of  the  pre-eminent 
cultivation  of  skill  in  particular  directions, 
man  is  sinking  to  a  lower  level  in  the  whole 
of  his  being,  is  becoming  insignificant  and  in 
the  end  empty,  the  question  necessarily  arises 
whether  all  this  work  of  civilization,  which 
renders  man  neither  happy  nor  noble  nor 
great,  is  not  a  self-deception  on  the  part  of 
humanity ;  whether  it  is  not  a  huge  contradic- 
tion to  set  all  one's  power  in  motion  with  such 
passionate  earnestness,  and,  as  regards  the 
whole  of  one's  being,  to  lose  rather  than  to 
gain.  What  is  then  the  real  object  for  which 
man  works  if  he  thus  becomes  a  mere  means 
and  instrument  in  a  soulless  process  of  civiliza- 
tion? We  have  just  seen  that  he  does  not 
attain  happiness  for  himself  in  the  process. 
For  whom,  then,  does  he  work  ?  For  a  future 
which  is  wholly  veiled  from  him  and  which 
will  perhaps  in  all  its  progress  only  be  involved 


382  THE   LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

in  increasing  confusion  ?  Or  for  the  whole  of 
humanity,  which  yet  from  the  point  of  view 
of  immediate  existence  is  a  pale  and  empty 
abstraction,  and  which,  as  such,  will  never  be 
able  to  overcome  the  interests  and  passions  of 
the  individual?  Everything  contributes  to 
raise  doubts  as  to  whether  the  path  pursued 
by  the  modern  period,  especially  if  it  be 
pursued  exclusively,  is  able  to  lead  man  to 
happiness.  It  is  coming  more  and  more 
to  be  believed  that,  as  every  individual  man 
is  more  than  his  work,  so  also  the  whole  of 
humanity  must  be  more  than  the  civilization 
based  on  work.  It  is  the  craving  after  in- 
dependence of  life  and  true  happiness  which 
drives  us  beyond  the  civilization  based  on 
mere  work  and  compels  us  to  seek  further 
widths  and  depths  of  life.  But  where  are 
they  to  be  found  ? 

The  craving  after  a  more  spiritual  civiliza- 
tion as  opposed  to  that  based  on  mere  work 
has  become  stronger  and  stronger  and  brings 
to  the  front  many  counteracting  influences. 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  HAPPINESS        383 

Perhaps  the  most  significant  of  these  influ- 
ences is  the  development  of  an  aesthetic 
culture  which  runs  through  the  period  in 
broad  waves.  We  cannot  deny  that  this 
movement  of  culture  has  furnished  a  valuable 
stimulus  and  indeed  has  led  to  an  advance: 
it  has  again  laid  a  stronger  emphasis  on  the 
independence  of  individuality,  it  has  given  life 
more  immediacy  and  more  free  movement, 
more  suppleness  and  more  joyousness,  and  it 
may  in  consequence  seem  to  restore  genuine 
happiness.  But  hi  reality,  as  a  closer  ex- 
amination is  bound  to  show,  when  confined 
to  its  own  resources  it  does  not  afford  a 
happiness  which  penetrates  to  the  inmost 
heart  of  life  and  gives  it  warmth  and  eleva- 
tion, but  only  a  rich  diversity  of  individual 
agreeable  moments,  of  pleasant  stimulations 
which  are  not  combined  into  a  whole.  What 
is  here  offered  is  only  a  selfish  though  refined 
enjoyment  on  the  part  of  the  educated,  and 
often  over-educated  individual :  there  is  an 
absence  as  well  of  a  high  goal  as  of  an 


384  THE  LIFE  OF  THE  SPIRIT 

essential  content  of  life.  But  without  these, 
what  has  happened  in  the  end  to  all  forms 
of  Epicureanism  will  also  happen  here  in  the 
midst  of  all  the  enjoyments,  however  refined 
they  may  be — a  feeling  of  inner  emptiness 
will  break  forth  irresistibly  and  reject  all  the 
proffered  happiness  as  shallow  and  artificial. 
Thus,  although  the  individual,  and  indeed 
whole  circles  of  society,  may  seek  in  this 
manner  to  escape  the  complications  and 
troubles  of  the  period,  the  way  to  overcome 
them  is  not  revealed  by  a  superficial  life  of 
this  character. 

In  another  direction  it  is  sought  to  win 
true  happiness  by  demanding  more  person- 
ality and  a  more  personal  shaping  of  exist- 
ence :  the  ethical  task  is  here  given  precedence 
over  artistic  activity.  This  view  certainly 
contains  an  incontestable  truth,  only  we  must 
recognize  that  a  high  and  distant  goal  is  here 
in  question,  the  attainment  of  which  should 
not  be  anticipated  so  lightly  and  easily  as  it 
often  is.  We  do  not  by  any  means  become 


THE   PROBLEM   OF  HAPPINESS        385 

personalities  by  pronouncing  the  word  with 
affection  and  emphasis,  for  subjective  emotion 
is  not  enough  to  start  our  life  on  a  new  path. 
The  thought  of  personality  possesses  value 
only  so  far  as  the  word  is  backed  by  action, 
and  indeed  action  which  involves  nothing  less 
than  the  complete  transformation  of  the  old, 
and  the  building  up  of  a  new  reality.  How 
much  this  thought  demands  is  shown  with 
particular  clearness  by  the  life-work  of  Kant. 
He  saw  clearly  that  there  is  no  personality 
unless  life  is  raised  to  freedom,  independence, 
and  spontaneity,  but  he  saw  just  as  clearly 
that  for  such  freedom  and  spontaneity  the 
world  of  natural  existence  does  not  afford  the 
smallest  room:  hence  a  complete  reversal  of 
the  former  world-picture  became  necessary, 
and  Kant  employed  all  his  mighty  powers  in 
its  accomplishment.  But  to-day  it  often  looks 
as  if  life  could  be  raised  to  an  essentially 
higher  level  within  the  world  of  natural 
existence  without  much  trouble  if  only  it 

were   brought  into  more  vigorous  and  direct 

25 


386  THE  LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

relation  with  the  individual  units.  This, 
however,  is  a  dangerous  error.  If  we  do 
not  bring  the  living  units  into  connection 
with  a  new  kind  of  being  and  thereby  give 
them  an  essentially  new  content,  this  move- 
ment, by  awakening  their  self-consciousness 
and  self-complacency,  may  easily  do  more 
harm  than  good,  and,  with  all  its  subjective 
stimulation,  provide  little  genuine  happiness ; 
it  is  also  dangerous  in  so  far  as  it  veils  the 
difficult  problem  with  which  we  are  here 
concerned.  The  modern  period,  like  all 
others,  is  especially  eloquent  and  enthusiastic 
about  that  in  which  it  is  most  lacking:  we 
are  in  painful  want  of  vigorous  and  strongly 
marked  personalities  of  original  force,  and  we 
talk  incessantly  about  personality,  its  value 
and  greatness. 

If,  then,  the  conclusion  of  the  matter  is  that 
we  cannot  overcome  the  complications  and 
gain  a  share  of  happiness  from  the  immediate 
situation,  but  can  do  so  only  by  an  energetic 
transformation  of  the  whole,  it  is  our  obvious 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   HAPPINESS        387 

course  to  turn  our  gaze  upon  the  whole  of 
history  in  order  to  gain  thereby  a  wider 
perspective  and  perhaps  a  point  of  support. 
Thus  viewed,  however,  the  problem  really 
seems  to  be  greater  rather  than  smaller. 
For  our  own  examination  showed  that 
wherever  the  desire  for  happiness  found 
satisfaction  on  the  high  level  of  the  spiritual 
life  it  involved  definite  convictions,  but  that 
these  convictions  in  the  changing  course  of 
the  ages  came  to  lose  their  immediacy  and 
their  force.  With  the  Greeks  the  struggle 
for  happiness  rested  on  faith  in  the  ration- 
ality and  beauty  of  the  universe,  the  vigorous 
realization  of  which  would  raise  man  above 
all  the  constraints  of  existence ;  in  Christianity 
it  was  the  steadfast  faith  in  the  loving  care  of 
an  almighty  Deity  which  supported  man  in 
all  the  trials  of  life  ;  the  modern  period  relied 
on  the  reason  indwelling  in  the  human  race 
and  on  the  unlimited  capacity  for  increase 
possessed  by  human  faculties ;  here  it  was 
faith  in  a  better  future  which  raised  man 


388  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

above  all  the  limitations  of  the  moment.  For 
us  moderns,  however,  the  thought  of  the 
beauty  of  the  universe  has  faded  away  before 
the  dark  actuality  and  the  severe  struggle  for 
existence  which  modern  science  displays  to 
us ;  and  we  all  know  how  religious  faith  has 
been  most  severely  shaken  in  the  life  of 
culture.  But  least  of  all  can  a  closer  ex- 
amination fail  to  recognize  how  seriously 
faith  in  man  and  his  spiritual  greatness  has 
been  impaired ;  for  here  the  test  of  experi- 
ence lay  nearest  to  hand,  and  experience, 
wherever  it  has  given  a  candid  verdict,  has 
decided  in  the  negative. 

Hence  that  which  afforded  earlier  periods 
a  firm  foundation  for  happiness  and  an  aid  to 
its  development  offers  us  at  the  present  day 
no  sufficient  point  of  support.  In  face  of  the 
influences  of  the  world  which  press  so  strongly 
upon  us  we  lack  a  rounded-off  world  of 
thought  to  mitigate,  transform,  and  turn  to 
account  the  doubts  and  difficulties  of  life: 
in  particular  we  lack  a  single  supreme  truth, 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   HAPPINESS        389 

and  hence  we  stand  defenceless  in  face  of  an 
all-powerful  Fate.  Is  it  to  be  wondered  at 
if  in  these  circumstances  pessimism  boldly 
raises  its  head  and  ever  advances  further  ? 
We  now  see  clearly  that  the  very  thing  which 
exalts  man  above  nature  involves  him  in  vast 
problems,  with  which  he  seems  unable  to 
cope.  It  cannot  fail  to  be  recognized  that  a 
new  kind  of  life  arises  in  him  and  separates 
him  from  other  beings.  This  life,  however, 
seems  to  find  no  support  and  help  in  the  great 
world ;  it  sees  itself  bound  to  unintelligible 
conditions  and  treated  by  the  process  of 
nature  as  if  it  were  a  thing  of  no  importance. 
Since  at  the  same  time  in  man  himself  it  is 
generally  languid  and  burdened  with  sharp 
contradictions,  it  seems  unable  to  prevail 
against  all  that  alien  world  upon  which  it 
supervenes.  But  with  all  its  weakness  and 
constraint,  this  new  life  yet  maintains  its 
standards  and  forces  man  to  apply  them  to 
all  his  doings  and  dealings.  After  this  move- 
ment the  mere  comfort  of  natural  existence 


390  THE  LIFE   OF  THE  SPIRIT 

can  no  longer  be  felt  as  satisfying :  man's 
awakened  power  demands  a  goal  and  an 
intrinsic  value,  but  it  does  not  find  what  it 
seeks  and  renunciation  is  impossible.  Man's 
thought  carries  in  itself  the  idea  of  infinity 
and  eternity,  and  thereby  destroys  all  the 
satisfaction  which  can  be  found  in  the  tem- 
poral and  the  finite.  Viewed  in  relation  to 
infinity  man  and  all  his  doings  must  seem 
unspeakably  small ;  the  individual,  too,  as  a 
thinking  being  cannot  help  feeling  the  cramp- 
ing limits,  the  nullity,  even,  of  his  particular 
sphere ;  the  thought  of  eternity  contracts  into 
a  fleeting  span  the  whole  duration  of  our  life 
and  threatens  to  take  from  it  all  its  zest  and 
heart.  But  the  course  of  history  heightens 
rather  than  diminishes  these  complications. 
For  the  more  man  develops  his  specific 
characteristics,  and  the  further  his  thought 
carries  him  beyond  the  sphere  of  immediate 
existence,  giving  him  at  the  same  time  a 
feeling  of  freedom,  the  greater  appears  the 
resistance  of  an  alien  world  which  does  not 


THE  PROBLEM   OF  HAPPINESS        391 

partake  in  his  advance,  and  the  heavier  the 
pressure  of  a  rigid  order  of  things.  Human 
experience,  too,  teaches  us  plainly  the  moment 
we  consult  it  that  the  progress  of  civilization 
rather  leads  man  into  increasing  complications 
than  bestows  upon  him  pure  and  complete 
happiness. 

Thus  the  problem  of  happiness  runs  through 
the  whole  movement  of  history,  and  that 
which  is  in  question  is  not  merely  the  paths 
which  lead  to  the  goals  but  the  goals  them- 
selves. It  follows  that  beyond  all  doubt 
philosophy  has  here  a  great  task  to  perform, 
and  indeed  that  it  is  here  indispensable  to 
humanity.  For  if  a  natural  instinct  does  not 
infallibly  show  us  the  way,  and  if  at  the  same 
time  all  our  efforts  after  genuine  happiness 
need  to  be  founded  on  definite  convictions 
about  the  Whole,  humanity  cannot  dispense 
with  a  vigorous  effort  of  introspection.  Here, 
too,  we  encounter  the  problem  of  truth  ;  no 
amount  of  subjective  wishing  and  willing  can 
lead  us  on  the  path  to  happiness  unless  the 


392  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

possibility  of  happiness  is  guaranteed  by  the 
reality  of  things.  But  to  give  information 
on  this  head  is  pre-eminently  the  task  of 
philosophy. 

But,  as  all  our  previous  discussion  shows, 
it  will  make  no  progress  unless  a  successful 
attempt  is  made  to  extract  from  the  ex- 
periences of  human  life  an  all-embracing  fact 
or  supreme  truth  which  shall  help  us  to  con- 
centrate and  strengthen  our  powers  and  render 
them  superior  to  obstacles.  The  experiences 
and  changes  of  the  ages  show  that  we  have 
to  seek  a  fact  of  this  nature  primarily  not 
outside  but  within  ourselves,  that  is,  not  in 
the  mere  circumstances  of  the  individual  but 
in  a  vital  process  superior  to  him.  The 
peculiarly  human  attributes  have  been  the 
source  of  all  complications ;  these  complica- 
tions, therefore,  will  in  all  probability  be 
insoluble  unless  the  specifically  human  ele- 
ment is  further  deepened,  brought  into  wider 
connections,  and  thereby  made  a  match  for 
the  indifferent  or  hostile  world.  With  this 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  HAPPINESS        393 

we  return  to  the  problem  of  an  independent 
spiritual  life  superior  to  the  mere  man.  If 
the  spiritual  process  which  takes  place  in  us 
is  a  mere  product  of  man,  this  involves  the 
disappearance  of  all  hope  of  building  up  a 
specific  world  from  it  as  a  centre,  and  of 
winning  at  the  same  time  significance,  value, 
and  happiness  for  human  existence :  on  this 
conclusion  all  our  labour  and  toil  is  lost,  and 
victory  rests  finally  with  negation.  Hence 
only  one  way  is  left,  viz.,  to  understand  and 
treat  the  spiritual  life  as  an  independent 
world ;  only  thus  can  we  hope  to  win  a 
content  for  our  life  and  to  save  it  from  the 
nothingness  into  which  otherwise  it  irretriev- 
ably sinks.  With  the  appropriation  of  these 
connections  our  existence  is  by  no  means 
transformed  into  vain  pleasure  and  harmony, 
but  rather  the  contrasts  and  conflicts  of 
existence  may  at  first  appear  only  greater  and 
more  intolerable,  and  the  battle  may  become 
fiercer  than  ever.  But  if  human  endeavour  is 
provided  with  a  firm  point  of  support  in  the 


394  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

movement  of  the  universe  and  allowed  to 
draw  upon  its  resources,  it  can  confidently 
begin  the  battle;  it  is  then  at  least  certain 
that  our  life  is  not  in  vain,  but  that  something 
of  moment  is  accomplished  in  it,  however  far 
we  may  be  from  having  a  clear  view  of  the 
whole.  But  if  philosophy  has  in  general  been 
found  indispensable  to  the  battle  for  happiness, 
it  must  become  still  more  so  when  we  see 
that  what  is  needed  is  a  radical  deepening 
and  a  vigorous  unification  of  life.  For  what 
is  there  more  qualified  than  philosophy  for 
the  task  first  of  destroying  the  illusory  hopes 
which  the  modern  world  holds  out  to  man, 
and  secondly,  of  pushing  on  the  work  of 
positive  construction  and  searching  out  new 
paths  ? 


CONCLUSION 

A  VARIETY  of  pictures  has  passed  before  us, 
a  variety  of  movements  has  come  within  our 
view  in  connection  with  the  different  funda- 
mental problems.  Nowhere,  however,  have 
we  seen  the  movement  advancing  in  a  straight 
line,  but  the  historical  aspect  is  complicated 
by  a  series  of  reactions  and  revulsions.  But  at 
the  same  time  it  has  become  clear  that  the 
problems  of  the  past  reach  into  the  present  and 
that  our  work  is  conditioned  by  the  strong 
influences  of  history.  Now  the  goal  appears 
as  the  overcoming  of  traditional  oppositions, 
now  as  the  more  vigorous  following  up  of  a 
course  successfully  begun,  but  in  almost  every 
case  a  glance  backwards  will  make  our  own 
task  clearer :  we  cannot  doubt  that  our  work, 
to  be  successful,  must  meet  the  demands  of  a 

89fi 


396  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

situation  conditioned  by  its  antecedents.  But 
it  has  become  just  as  apparent  that  we  cannot 
simply  accept  a  particular  stimulus  and  allow 
ourselves  to  be  carried  on  without  trouble  by 
the  stream  of  history.  For  we  have  seen 
everywhere  that  the  earlier  achievements  can 
no  longer  satisfy  us  in  their  more  detailed 
development,  that  the  movement  itself  has 
produced  a  new  situation  with  peculiar 
demands.  Not  only  an  abundance  of  problems 
encompasses  us  on  all  sides  but  our  spiritual 
condition  as  a  whole  has  become  insecure  ;  we 
feel  with  particular  distinctness  at  the  present 
day  that  the  life  of  humanity  is  not  being  built 
up  in  peace  and  security  on  a  fixed  foundation, 
but  that  we  have  continually  to  renew  the 
struggle  for  its  continuance  and  its  main 
principles.  Everything  tends  to  show  that  our 
period  is  full  of  tension  and  occupied  with  high 
tasks ;  it  is  obvious  that  we  have  come  to  a 
point  where  it  is  a  question  of  recurring  to  the 
fundamental  problems,  to  the  elementary  con- 
ditions of  our  spiritual  existence ;  we  are 


CONCLUSION  397 

urgently  called  to  the  search   for  new  paths, 
to  independent  creative  effort. 

But  the  average  attainment  of  the  period  by 
no  means  corresponds  to  the  demands  of  the 
spiritual  situation ;  we  feel,  perhaps  to  a  greater 
extent  than  other  epochs,  how  far  human 
conduct  can  diverge  from  the  inner  necessities 
of  the  spiritual  life.  The  spiritual  situation  of 
the  present  urgently  calls  for  a  synthesis  of 
life,  for  an  overcoming  of  oppositions,  for  a 
systematization  which  should  deal  with  the 
whole,  and  also  for  a  concentration  of  men  on 
the  search  for  common  paths.  In  place  of  this 
we  find  a  high  degree  of  isolation,  a  complete 
separation  into  different  parties  and  groups,  a 
treatment  of  problems  from  the  standpoint  of 
mere  party.  This  division  into  different  circles 
and  sharp  oppositions  hinders  all  mutual 
understanding ;  to  each  it  seems  to  admit  of 
no  doubt  that  his  own  way  of  thinking  is  the 
best  and  constitutes  the  certain  cure  for  all 
ills ;  it  is  never  doubted  that  the  other  party 
is  entirely  in  the  wrong.  Self-complacency 


398  THE  LIFE  OF  THE   SPIRIT 

and  dogmatism  thus  flourish  luxuriantly,  the 
constant  criticism  of  others  stifles  all  self- 
criticism.  Thus  the  different  movements  are 
bound  to  intersect  and  hinder  one  another, 
and  in  the  end  a  confused  chaos  must  arise, 
from  which  it  is  impossible  for  successful 
creative  efforts  to  proceed. 

In  addition,  the  spiritual  situation  demands 
a  vigorous  deepening  of  thought  and  life,  for 
otherwise  how  should  we  be  equal  to  dealing 
with  the  difficult  problems  which  the  age  lays 
upon  our  shoulders,  or  how  could  we  wrest 
from  this  confused  medley  goals  and  paths  of 
our  own  ?  In  place  of  this  the  average  man 
clings  to  the  surface  of  things  and  is  content 
to  do  so :  we  surrender  ourselves  to  the  first 
impression  and  do  not  perceive  into  what 
complexity  it  may  lead  us ;  hence  everything 
seems  easy  and  smooth  and  all  difficulties 
appear  to  exist  only  in  the  imagination  of  those 
who  are  involved  in  old  prejudices.  This  mode 
of  thought  further  leads  us  into  sharp  contra- 
dictions in  our  own  being  by  bidding  us  follow 


CONCLUSION  399 

first  one  and  then  another  impression;  and 
hence  in  particular  we  often  seek  to  retain  as 
an  effect  and  consequence  what  we  have 
definitely  rejected  as  a  cause  and  ground.  In 
this  way  alone  has  it  become  possible  for  the 
thought  and  the  action  of  the  period  to  employ 
as  a  general  rule  fundamentally  different 
standards  of  value.  Our  thought  is  occupied 
chiefly  with  the  visible  world  and  shuns  as 
"metaphysics"  everything  which  transcends 
its  limits ;  but  in  action  there  prevails  a  vague 
idealism,  which  treats  conceptions  such  as 
reason  and  personality,  humanity  and  human 
greatness,  as  incontestable  values,  without 
realizing  that  with  them  a  new  world  is  intro- 
duced. But  in  the  end  our  spiritual  creative 
efforts  are  oppressed  by  a  desire  for  negation, 
an  inclination  to  expect  great  benefit  from  the 
destruction  of  traditional  systems,  from  the 
rejection  of  old  solutions.  Now  the  age 
certainly  contains  much  that  is  obsolete  and 
rotten,  which  urgently  needs  to  be  removed, 
but  negation  cannot  produce  any  true  advance 


400  THE   LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

unless  behind  it  there  lies  the  impelling  force 
of  an  affirmation,  which  gives  effort  a  fixed 
direction.  But  this  is  usually  lacking ;  it  is 
the  negation  as  negation  which  satisfies  many 
and  is  thought  to  be  something  great.  But 
since  there  is  usually  nothing  narrower  and 
more  impatient  than  negation,  it  produces  to- 
day a  dogmatism,  and  indeed  a  despotism, 
which  is  bound  to  impair  to  the  most  serious 
extent  spiritual  creative  efforts  and  the  true 
knowledge  of  the  present  situation. 

But  if  the  surface  of  things  offers  the  most 
obstinate  resistance  to  the  necessary  renewal 
of  culture  and  strengthening  of  inner  life,  and 
if  no  essential  progress  of  life  is  possible  from 
this  starting-point,  but  only  in  opposition  to 
it,  we  may  welcome  as  evidence  of  an  increas- 
ing reaction  the  fact  that  this  obstacle  is 
coming  to  be  more  and  more  felt,  and  that 
the  necessity  of  deliverance  from  isolation, 
shallowness,  and  negation  is  becoming  more 
and  more  clearly  recognized.  The  more,  how- 
ever, spiritual  work  strives  to  gain  indepen- 


CONCLUSION  40J 

dence  of  the  superficiality  of  the  period,  and 
the  more  the  desire  emerges  for  greater  depths 
and  more  essential  contents  of  life,  the  more 
valuable  must  the  work  of  philosophy  appear, 
and  the  less  doubt  can  there  be  felt  that  it  is 
indispensable  for  overcoming  the  present  crisis 
of  spiritual  life. 

But  at  the  same  time  it  will  also  be  clearly 
seen  that  philosophy  must  have  a  special 
nature  in  order  to  be  able  to  discharge  these 
tasks.  It  must  not  be  an  affair  of  mere 
learning,  nor  can  it  remain  a  mere  blending 
of  reflection  and  subjective  acuteness,  but  it 
must  become  an  energetic  pressing  forward 
and  a  spiritual  creation,  it  must  work  out 
depths  of  our  life,  awaken  dormant  powers, 
co-ordinate  isolated  efforts,  indeed  it  must 
reveal  a  new  reality  if  it  is  to  help  humanity 
to  deal  with  these  leading  questions  and  at 
the  same  time  to  preserve  the  independence  of 
its  own  position.  For  such  progressive  crea- 
tion it  has  to  seek  a  new  and  peculiar  stand- 
point, and  in  this  sense  it  must  assume  the 

26 


402  THE  LIFE   OF  THE   SPIRIT 

form  of  a  metaphysics.  But  it  cannot  avoid 
the  errors  of  the  old  metaphysics  unless  it 
starts  from  the  process  of  life,  as  we  see  it  not 
in  the  isolated  individual  but  in  the  whole  of 
humanity,  and  unless  it  succeeds  in  the 
attempt  to  discover  and  develop  in  mankind 
a  general  tendency  opposed  to  the  initial 
situation. 

This  is  much  what  we  had  in  mind  when 
we  spoke  of  a  philosophy  of  spiritual  life  and 
desired  the  elaboration  of  such  a  philosophy. 
It  is  only  such  a  philosophy  which  can  co- 
ordinate and  make  use  of  all  the  experience 
accumulated  in  the  history  of  the  world 
without  surrendering  the  rights  of  the  living 
present ;  only  such  can  place  us  under  the 
constraint  of  an  inner  necessity  and  at  the 
same  time  summon  us  to  fresh  and  joyous 
activity ;  it  alone  can  do  justice  to  the 
diversity  of  the  relations  of  life  and  at  the 
same  time  strive  after  a  straightforward  sim- 
plicity ;  it  alone  can  in  the  end  serve  to 
promote  the  advancement  of  life  without 


CONCLUSION  403 

sinking  to  a  matter  of  mere  utility.  A 
philosophy  of  this  nature  is  especially  con- 
genial to  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the 
German  people  and  the  traditions  of  German 
life :  a  nation  which  has  produced  men  like 
Eckhardt  and  Leibniz,  Kant  and  Hegel,  and 
so  many  other  thinkers  spiritually  akin  to 
these,  will  never  be  able  to  give  up  the  desire 
for  a  philosophy  which  seeks  to  regard  reality 
from  the  inside  and  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  whole,  and  which,  in  the  midst  of  earnest 
and  laborious  investigation,  strives  to  raise  the 
whole  of  human  life  to  a  higher  level. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 

Antiquity  (Greek),  33  ff.,   107  ff.,  199  ff.,  284  ff.,  338  fF., 

356  ff. 

Archimedes,  73,  146,  234. 
Aristotle,  2,  8,  37  ff.,  6l,  71,  109,  110,  125,  203,  207,  275, 

285,  287,  289,  290,  338,  343  ff. 
Athenagoras,  294. 
Augustine,  58,  120,  121,  140,  213,  277,  295. 

Bacon,  369,  370. 

Christianity,  49  fF.,  118  ff.,  134,  174,  176,  211   ff.,  251,  252, 

294  ff.,  299,  303,  357  ff. 

Church,  57  ff,  69,  93,  99,  124,  223,  226,  301. 
Comte,  91,  242,  324. 

Descartes,  73,  146,  149,  307. 

Eckhardt,  403. 

Eleatics,  33. 

Enlightenment,  79,  132,  147,  149,  184,  233,  307  ff.,  374, 

377. 
Epicurus,  4,  8,  384. 

Fichte,  307,  319. 

Goethe,  139,  141,  205,  286. 
Gregory  of  Nyssa,  36 1. 

Hegel,  10,  54,  89,  138,  139,  141,  150,  151,  242,  307,  319, 
326,  367,  403. 


406  INDEX  OF  NAMES 

Herbart,  10. 
Herder,  71. 

Kant,  6,  71,  72,  75,  147,  149,  307,  313,  315  IF.,  374,  385, 
403. 

Leibniz,  74,  75,  138,  147,  307,  309,  367,  370,  403. 
Locke,  71. 

Middle  Ages,  58  ff.,  66,  125,  128,  133,  167. 

Mill,  324. 

Modern  Period,  66  ff.,  131,   134,  145,  146,  169,  177,  222, 

227,  252,  302,  305,  366  ff. 
Mysticism,  47  ff.,  63,  127,  140,  159. 

Nicolaus  of  Cusa,  366. 

Plato,  2,  6,  8,  35  ff.,  105,  108,  173,  207,  285,  287,  340  ff. 
Plotinus,  44  ff,  117,  120,  286,  291  ff,  338,  350  ff. 
Positivism,  91,  141,  242,  322,  324. 
Pragmatism,  322  ff. 
Protestantism,  298,  301. 
Pythagoreans,  32. 

Reformation,  72,  132,  365. 

Renaissance,  132. 

Roman  Catholicism,  60,  164  ff,  225,  297  ff.,  301,  365. 

Scepticism,  291. 

Schelling,  307. 

Scholasticism,  6l  ff,  69,  126,  289. 

Socrates,  4. 

Sophists,  4,  34. 

Spencer,  324. 

Spinoza,  147,  189,  277,  278,  307,  309  ff,  333. 

Stoicism,  4,  8,  42,  289,  290. 


PRINTED   BY   NEILL  AND  CO.,   LTD.,   EDINBURGH. 


A    Catalogue 

of 

Williams  &  Norgate's 

Publications 

Divisions  of  the  Catalogue 

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I.    THEOLOGY  ......  2 

II.    PHILOSOPHY,    PSYCHOLOGY  ....          28 

III.  ORIENTAL     LANGUAGES,     LITERATURE,     AND 

HISTORY          ....  -33 

IV.  PHILOLOGY,    MODERN    LANGUAGES  .  .          38 
V.    SCIENCE,    MEDICINE,    CHEMISTRY,    ETC.  .          43 

VI.    BIOGRAPHY,        ARCHAEOLOGY,        LITERATURE, 

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THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  By  Paul  Wernle, 
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versity of  Basel.  Revised  by  the  Author,  and  translated  by  the 
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of  Dogma.  II.  The  Presuppositions  of  the  History  of  Dogma. 
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Genesis  of  the  Catholic  Apostolic  Dogmatic  Theology,  and  the 
first  Scientific  Ecclesiastical  System  of  Doctrine.  BOOK  I.  : — 
The  Preparation.  Vol.  II.  :  DIVISION  I.  BOOK  II.  :—The 
Laying  of  the  Foundation. — I.  Historical  Survey. — /.  Fixing  and 
gradual  Secularising  of  Christianity  as  a  Church. — //.  Fixing  and 
gradual  Hellenising  of  Christianity  as  a  System  of  Doctrine.  Vol. 
III.  :  DIVISION  I.  BOOK  II.:— The  Laying  of  the  Foundation — 
continued.  DIVISION  II. — The  Development  of  Ecclesiastical 
Dogma.  BOOK  I. : — The  History  of  the  Development  of  Dogma  as 
the  Doctrine  of  the  God-man  on  the  basis  of  Natural  Theology. 

A.  Presuppositions  of  Doctrine  of  Redemption  or  Natural  Theology. 

B.  The  Doctrine  of  Redemption  in  the  Person  of  the  God-man  in 
its  historical  development.     Vol.  IV. :  DIVISION  II.     BOOK  I.  : — 
The  History  of  the  Development  of  Dogma  as  the  Doctrine  of  the 
God-man  on  the  basis  of  Natural  Theology — continued.     Vol.  V. : 
DIVISION  II.     BOOK  II.  : — Expansion  and  Remodelling  of  Dogma 
into  a  Doctrine  of  Sin,  Grace,  and  Means  of  Grace  on  the  basis  of 
the  Church.     Vol.   VI.  :    DIVISION  II.     BOOK  II.  -.—  Expansion 
and  Remodelling  of  Dogma  into  a  Doctrine  of  Sin,   Grace,  ana 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  5 

THEOLOGICAL  TRANSLATION  LIBRARY— Continued. 

Means  of  Grace  on  the  basis  of  the  Church — continued.  Vol.  VII. : 
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Dogtna. — Full  Index. 

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WHAT  IS  CHRISTIANITY?  Sixteen  Lectures  delivered  in 
the  University  of  Berlin  during  the  Winter  Term,  1899-1900.  By 
Adolf  Harnack.  Translated  by  Thomas  Bailey  Saunders.  (New 
Series,  Vol.  XIV.)  Demy  8vo,  cloth,  los.  6d.  ;  can  only  be 
supplied  when  complete  set  of  the  New  Series  is  ordered. 

Prof.  W.  Sanday  of  Oxford,  in  the  examination  of  the  work,  says  : — "  I  may 
assume  that  Harnack's  book,  which  has  attracted  a  good  deal  of  attention  in  this 
country  as  in  Germany,  is  by  this  time  well  known,  and  that  its  merits  are 
recognised — its  fresh  and  vivid  descriptions,  its  breadth  of  view  and  skilful 
selection  of  points,  its  frankness,  its  genuine  enthusiasm,  its  persistent  effort  to 
get  at  the  living  realities  of  religion." 

"  Seldom  has  a  treatise  of  the  sort  been  at  once  so  suggestive  and  so 
stimulating.  Seldom  have  the  results  of  so  much  leaining  been  brought  to  bear 
on  the  religious  problems  which  address  themselves  to  the  modern  mind." — 
Pilot. 

"  In  many  respects  this  is  the  most  notable  work  of  Prof.  Harnack.  .  .  . 
These  lectures  are  most  remarkable,  both  for  the  historical  insight  they  display 
and  for  their  elevation  of  tone  and  purpose." — Literature. 

THE  COMMUNION  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  WITH  GOD  : 
A  Discussion  in  Agreement  with  the  View  of  Luther.  By 

W.  Herrmann,  Dr.  Theol. ,  Professor  of  Dogmatic  Theology  in  the 
University  of  Marburg.  Translated  from  the  Second  thoroughly 
revised  Edition,  with  Special  Annotations  by  the  Author,  by  J. 
Sandys  Stanyon,  M.A.  (New  Series,  Vol.  IV.)  8vo,  cloth. 
los.  6d. 

"  It  will  be  seen  from  what  has  been  said  that  this  book  is  a  very  important 
one.  .  .  .  The  translation  is  also  exceedingly  well  done." — Critical  Review. 

"  We  trust  the  book  will  be  widely  read,  and  should  advise  those  who  read  it 
to  do  so  twice." — Primitive  Methodist  Quarterly. 

"Instinct  with  genuine  religious  feeling;  .  .  .  exceedingly  interesting  and 
suggestive." — Glasgow  Herald. 

A  HISTORY  OF  THE  HEBREWS.  By  R.  Kittel,  Ordinary 
Professor  of  Theology  in  the  University  of  Breslau.  In  2  vols. 
(New  Series,  Vols.  III.  and  VI.)  8vo,  cloth.  Each  volume, 
los,  6d. 

Vol.  I.  Sources  of  Information  and  History  of  the  Period 
up  to  the  Death  of  Joshua.  Translated  by  John  Taylor, 
D.Lit.,  M.A. 


14  Henrietta  Street,  Co  vent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


THEOLOGICAL  TRANSLATION  LIBRARY— Continued. 

Vol.  II.  Sources  of  Information  and  History  of  the 
Period  down  to  the  Babylonian  Exile.  Translated  by  Hope 
W.  Hogg,  B.D.,  and  E.  B.  Speirs,  D.D. 

"  It  is  a  sober  and  earnest  reconstruction,  for  which  every  earnest  student  of 
the  Old  Testament  should  be  grateful." — Christian  World. 

"  It  will  be  a  happy  day  for  pulpit  and  pew  when  a  well-thumbed  copy  of 
the  History  of  the  Hebrews  is  to  be  found  in  every  manse  and  parsonage." — 
Literary  World. 

"  It  is  a  work  which  cannot  fail  to  attract  the  attention  of  thoughtful  people 
in  this  country." — Pall  Mall  Gazette. 


AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  TEXTUAL  CRITICISM 
OF  THE  GREEK  NEW  TESTAMENT.  By  Professor 
Eberhard  Nestle,  of  Maulbronn.  Translated  from  the  Second 
Edition,  with  Corrections  and  Additions  by  the  Author,  by  William 
Edie,  B.D.,  and  edited,  with  a  Preface,  by  Allan  Menzies,  D.D., 
Professor  of  Divinity  and  Biblical  Criticism  in  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews.  (New  Series,  Vol.  XIII.)  With  eleven  reproductions 
of  Texts.  Demy  8vo,  los.  6d.  ;  half-leather,  I2s.  6d. 

"We  have  no  living  scholar  more  capable  of  accomplishing  the  fascinating 
task  of  preparing  a  complete  introduction  on  the  new  and  acknowledged  prin- 
ciples than  Prof.  Nestle.  This  book  will  stand  the  most  rigorous  scrutiny  ;  it 
will  surpass  the  highest  expectation." — Expository  Times. 

"Nothing  could  be  better  than  Dr.  Nestle's  account  of  the  materials  which 
New  Testament  textual  criticism  has  to  deal  with." — Spectator. 

"We  know  of  no  book  of  its  size  which  can  be  recommended  more  cordially 
to  the  student,  alike  for  general  interest  and  for  the  clearness  of  its  arrangement. 
.  .  .  In  smoothness  of  rendering,  the  translation  is  one  of  the  best  we  have 
come  across  for  a  considerable  time." — Manchester  Guardian. 


THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE.  By  Prof.  Carl  von  Weizsacker.  Trans- 
lated by  James  Millar,  B.D.  2  vols.  (New  Series,  Vols.  I.  and 
V.)  Demy  Svo,  cloth.  Each  los.  6d. 

"Weizsacker  is  an  authority  of  the  very  first  rank.  The  present  work  marks 
an  epoch  in  New  Testament  criticism.  The  English  reader  is  fortunate  in 
having  a  masterpiece  of  this  kind  rendered  accessible  to  him." — Expository 
Times. 

"  .  .  .  No  student  of  theology  or  of  the  early  history  of  Christianity  can 
afford  to  leave  Weizsacker's  great  book  unread." — Manchester  Guardian. 

"  In  every  direction  in  this  work  we  find  the  mark  of  the  independent 
thinker  and  investigator  .  .  .  this  remarkable  volume  .  .  .  this  able  and 
learned  work.  .  .  ." — Christian  World. 

"  The  book  itself  .  .  .  is  of  great  interest,  and  the  work  of  the  translation 
has  been  done  in  a  most  satisfactory  way." — Critical  Review. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF   PUBLICATIONS.  7 

THEOLOGICAL  TRANSLATION   FUND  LIBRARY. 

©U>  Scries. 

Uniform  Price  per  Volume,  6s. 

BAUR  (F.  C.).  CHURCH  HISTORY  OF  THE  FIRST 
THREE  CENTURIES.  Translated  from  the  Third  German 
Edition.  Edited  by  Rev.  Allan  Menzies.  2  vols.  8vo,  cloth.  I2s. 

PAUL,   THE  APOSTLE  OF  JESUS  CHRIST,  HIS 

LIFE    AND    WORK,    HIS     EPISTLES    AND    DpC- 
TRINE.      A   Contribution   to   a   Critical    History  of  Primitive 
Christianity.      Edited    by    Rev.   Allan    Menzies.      2nd    Edition. 
2  vols.  8vo,  cloth.     125. 

BLEEK    (F.).      LECTURES    ON    THE    APOCALYPSE. 

Translated.      Edited  by  the  Rev.   Dr.  S.  Davidson,     fcvo,  cloth. 
6s. 

EWALD'S  (Dr.  H.)  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  PRO- 
PHETS OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  Translated  by 
the  Rev.  J.  F.  Smith.  [Vol.  I.  General  Introduction,  Yoel,  Amos, 
Hnsea,  and  Zakharya  9-11.  Vol.  II.  Yesaya,  Obadya,  and  Mikah. 
Vol.  III.  Nahum,  Ssephanya,  Habaqquq,  Zakharya,  Yeremya. 
Vol.  IV.  Hezekiel,  Yesaya  xl.-lxvi.  Vol.  V.  Haggai,  Zakharya, 
Malaki.  Jona,  Baruc,  Daniel,  Appendix  and  Index.]  5  vols.  8vo, 
cloth.  305. 

COMMENTARY    ON    THE   PSALMS.      Translated  by 

the  Rev.  E.  Johnson,  M.A.     2  vols.  8vo,  cloth.     12s. 

COMMENTARY    ON    THE    BOOK    OF   JOB,    with 

Translation.      Translated    from    the    German    by   the   Rev.   J. 
Frederick  Smith.     8vo.  cloth.     6.r. 

HAUSRATH  (Prof.  A.).  HISTORY  OF  THE  NEW 
TESTAMENT  TIMES.  The  Time  of  Jesus.  Translated 
by  the  Revs.  C.  T.  Poynting  and  P.  Quenzer.  2  vols.  8vo,  cloth. 

I2S. 

The  second  portion  of  this  work,  "The  Times  of  the  Apostles,'1 
was  issued  apart  from  the  Library,  but  in  uniform  volumes  ;  see 
p.  1 8. 

KEIM'S  HISTORY  OF  JESUS  OF  NAZARA  :  Considered 
in  its  connection  with  the  National  Life  of  Israel,  and 
related  in  detail.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Arthur  Ransom 
and  the  Rev.  E.  M.  Geldart.  [Vol.  I.  Second  Edition.  Intro- 
duction, Survey  of  Sources,  Sacred  and  Polilical  Groundwork. 
Religious  Groundwork.  Vol.  II.  The  Sacred  Youth,  Self  recog- 
nition, Decision.  Vol.  III.  The  First  Preaching,  the  Works  of 


14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


THEOLOGICAL  TRANSLATION  FUND  LIBRARY- Continued. 

Jesus,  the  Disciples,  and  Apostolic  Mission.  Vol.  IV.  Conflicts 
and  Disillusions,  Strengthened  Self-confidence,  Last  Efforts  in 
Galilee,  Signs  of  the  Approaching  Fall,  Recognition  of  the  Messiah. 
Vol.  V.  The  Messianic  Progress  to  Jerusalem,  the  Entry  into 
Jerusalem,  the  Decisive  Struggle,  the  Farewell,  the  Last  Supper. 
Vol.  VI.  The  Messianic  Death  at  Jerusalem.  Arrest  and  Pseudo- 
Trial,  the  Death  on  the  Cross,  Burial  and  Resurrection,  the 
Messiah's  Place  in  History,  Indices.]  Complete  in  6  vols. 
8vo.  36^. 

(Vol.  I.  only  to  be  had  when  a  complete  set  of  the  work  is 
ordered.) 

KUENEN  (Dr.  A.).  THE  RELIGION  OF  ISRAEL  TO 
THE  FALL  OF  THE  JEWISH  STATE.  By  Dr.  A. 

Kuenen,  Professor  of  Theology  at  the  University,  Leiden.  Trans- 
lated from  the  Dutch  by  A.  H.  May.  3  vols.  8vo,  cloth.  i8s. 

PFLEIDERER  (O.).  PAULIN1SM  :  A  Contribution  to  the 
History  of  Primitive  Christian  Theology.  Translated  by  E. 
Peters.  2nd  Edition.  2  vols.  8vo,  cloth.  12s. 

PHILOSOPHY  OF  RELIGION  ON  THE  BASIS  OF 

ITS  HISTORY.  (Vols.  I.  II.  History  of  the  Philosophy  of 
Religion  from  Spinoza  to  the  Present  Day  ;  Vols.  III.  IV.  Genetic- 
Speculative  Philosophy  of  Religion.)  Translated  by  Prof.  Allan 
Menzies  and  the  Rev.  Alex.  Stewart.  4  vols.  8vo,  cloth.  245. 

REVILLE  (Dr.  A.).  PROLEGOMENA  OF  THE  HIS- 
TORY OF  RELIGIONS.  With  an  Introduction  by  Prof. 
F.  Max  Miiller.  8vo,  cloth.  6s. 

PROTESTANT  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  NEW  TES- 
TAMENT. With  General  and  Special  Introductions.  Edited 
by  Profs.  P.  W.  Schmidt  and  F.  von  Holzendorff.  Translated 
from  the  Third  German  Edition  by  the  Rev.  F.  H.  Jones,  B.A. 
3  vols.  8vo,  cloth.  i8j. 

SCHRADER  (Prof.  E.).  THE  CUNEIFORM  INSCRIP- 
TIONS AND  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  Translated 
from  the  Second  Enlarged  Edition,  with  Additions  by  the  Author, 
and  an  Introduction  by  the  Rev.  Owen  C.  Whitehouse,  M.A. 
2  vols.  (Vol.  I.  not  sold  separately.)  With  a  Map.  8vo,  cloth. 

I2S. 

ZELLER  (Dr.  E.).  THE  CONTENTS  AND  ORIGIN  OF 
THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES  CRITICALLY 
INVESTIGATED.  Preceded  by  Dr.  Fr.  Overbeck's  Intro- 
duction to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  from  De  Wette's  Handbook. 
Translated  by  Joseph  Dare.  2  vols.  8vo,  cloth,  izr. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS. 


THE    CROWN    THEOLOGICAL    LIBRARY. 

The  volumes  are  uniform  in  size  (crown  octavo)  and  binding,  but  the 
price  varies  according  to  the  size  and  importance  of  the  work. 

Vol.  I.  BABEL  AND  BIBLE.  By  Dr.  Friedrich  Delitzsch,  Pro- 
fessor of  Assyriology  in  the  University  of  Berlin.  Authorised 
Translation.  Edited,  with  an  Introduction,  by  Rev.  C.  H.  W. 
Johns.  Crown  8vo,  with  77  illustrations,  cloth.  $s. 

Vol.  II.  THE  VIRGIN  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST:  An  Historical 
and  Critical  Essay.  By  Paul  Lobstein,  Professor  of  Dogmatics 
in  the  University  of  Strassburg.  Translated  by  Victor  Leuliette, 
A.  K.C.,  B. -es-L.,  Paris.  Edited,  with  an  Introduction,  by  Rev. 
W.  D.  Morrison,  LL.D.  Crown  8vo.  35. 

Vol.  III.  MY  STRUGGLE  FOR  LIGHT :  Confessions  of  a 
Preacher.  By  R.  Wimmer,  Pastor  of  Weisweil-am-Rhein  in 
Baden.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  y.  6d. 

Vol.  IV.  LIBERAL  CHRISTIANITY:  Its  Origin,  Nature,  and 
Mission.  By  Jean  Reville,  Professeur  adjoint  a  la  Faculte  de 
Theologie  Protestante  de  1'Universite  de  Paris.  Translated  and 
edited  by  Victor  Leuliette,  A.K.C.,  B. -es-L.  Crown  8vo, 
cloth.  4.?. 

Vol.  V.  WHAT  IS  CHRISTIANITY?  By  Adolf  Harnack, 
Professor  of  Church  History  in  the  University,  Berlin.  Translated 
by  Thomas  Bailey  Saunders.  Third  and  Revised  Edition.  Crown 
8vo.  $s. 

Vol.  VI.  FAITH  AND  MORALS.  By  W.  Herrmann,  Professor  of 
Systematic  Theology  at  the  University  of  Marburg;  Author  of  "The 
Communion  of  the  Christian  with  God."  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  55. 

Vol.  VII.  EARLY  HEBREW  STORY.  A  Study  of  the  Origin, 
the  Value,  and  the  Historical  Background  of  the  Legends  of  Israel. 
By  John  P.  Peters,  D.D.,  Rector  of  St.  Michael's  Church,  New 
York  ;  author  of  "  Nippur,  or  Explorations  and  Adventures  on  the 
Euphrates."  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  55. 

Vol.  VIII.  BIBLE  PROBLEMS  AND  THE  NEW 
MATERIAL  FOR  THEIR  SOLUTION.  A  Plea  for 
Thoroughness  of  Investigation,  addressed  to  Churchmen 
and  Scholars.  By  the  Rev.  T.  K.  Cheyne,  D.Litt.,  D.D., 
Fellow  of  the  British  Academy  ;  Oriel  Professor  of  Interpretation 
in  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  Canon  of  Rochester.  Crown 
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THE  CROWN  THEOLOGICAL  LIBRARY  -Continued. 

Vol.  IX.  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  ATONEMENT  AND 
ITS  HISTORICAL  EVOLUTION  ;  and  RELIGION 
AND  MODERN  CULTURE.  By  the  late  Auguste  Sabatier, 
Professor  in  the  University  of  Paris.  Translated  by  Victor  Leuliette, 
A.K.C.,  B.  -es-L.  Crown  8vo.  qs.  6d. 

Vol.  X.  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CONCEPTION  OF 
CHRIST:  Its  Value  and  Significance  in  the  History  of 
Religion.  By  Otto  Pfleiderer,  D.D. ,  Professor  of  Practical 
Theology  in  the  University,  Berlin,  Crown  8vo.  3^.  6</. 

Vol.  XL  THE  CHILD  AND  RELIGION.  Eleven  Essays.  By 
Prof.  Henry  Jones,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  University  of  Glasgow  ;  C.  F.  G. 
Masterman,  M.A.  ;  Prof.  George  T.  Ladd,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Uni- 
versity of  Yale;  Rev.  F.  R.  Tennant,  M.A.,  B.Sc.,  Hulsean 
Lecturer  ;  Rev.  J.  Cynddylan  Jones,  D.  D.  ;  Rev.  Canon  Hensley 
Henson,  M.A.  ;  Rev.  Robert  F.  Horton,  M.A.,  D.D.  ;  Rev.  G. 
Hill,  M.A.,  D.D.  ;  Rev.  J.  J.  Thornton;  Rev.  Rabbi  A.  A. 
Green ;  Prof.  Joseph  Agar  Beet,  D.  D.  Edited  by  Thomas 
Stephens,  B.A.  Crown  8vo.  6.r. 

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years,  and  the  study  of  its  pages  will  often  prove  a  godsend  to  many  perplexed 
minds  in  the  church  and  in  the  Christian  home." — British  Weekly. 

Vol.  XII.  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  RELIGION:  An  Anthro- 
pological Study.  By  L.  R.  Farnell,  D.  Litt. ,  Fellow  and  Tutor 
of  Exeter  College,  Oxford ;  University  Lecturer  in  Classical 
Archaeology,  etc.,  etc.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  5^. 

Vol.  XIII.  THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 
By  H.  von  Soden,  D. D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in  the  University 
of  Berlin.  Translated  by  the  Rev.  J.  R.  Wilkinson,  and  edited  by 
Rev.  W.  D.  Morrison,  LL.D.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  $s. 

Vol.  XIV.  JESUS.  By  Wilhelm  Bousset,  Professor  of  Theology  in 
Gottingen.  Translated  by  Janet  Penrose  Trevelyan,  and  edited  by 
Rev.  W.  D.  Morrison,  LL.  D.  Crown  8vo.  45. 

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papers  said  things  that  I  regaid  as  as  nothing  less  than  admirable.  I  very 
much  doubt  whether  we  have  anything  so  admirable  in  English." — Rev.  Dr. 
Sanday  in  the  Guardian. 

Vol.  XV.  THE  COMMUNION  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN 
WITH  GOD.  By  Prof.  Wilhelm  Herrmann.  Translated  from 
the  new  German  Edition  by  Rev.  J.  S.  Stanyon,  M.A. ,  and  Rev. 
R.  W.  Stewart,  B.D.,  B.Sc.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  5*. 

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CATALOGUE  OF   PUBLICATIONS. 


THE  CROWN  THEOLOGICAL  LIBRARY-Continued. 

Vol.  XVI.  HEBREW  RELIGION  TO  THE  ESTABLISH- 
MENT OF  JUDAISM  UNDER  EZRA.  By  W.  E.  Addis, 
M.A.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  5.?. 

Vol.  XVII.  NATURALISM  AND  RELIGION.  By  Rudolf 
Otto,  Professor  of  Theology  in  the  University  of  Gottingen.  Trans- 
lated by  J.  Arthur  Thomson,  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  the 
University  of  Aberdeen,  and  Margaret  R.  Thomson.  Edited 
with  an  Introduction  by  Rev.  W.  D.  Morrison,  LL.  D.  Crown 
8vo.  6s. 

"...  A  valuable  survey,  and  a  critical  estimate  of  scientific  theory  and 
kindred  ideas  as  they  concern  the  religious  view  of  the  world.  ...  It  is  well 
written,  clear,  and  even  eloquent. "  —Expository  Times. 

Vol.  XVIII.  ESSAYS  ON  THE  SOCIAL  GOSPEL.  By  Pro- 
fessor Adolf  Harnack,  of  Berlin,  and  Professor  W.  Herrmann,  of 
Marburg.  Crown  Svo,  cloth.  Q.S.  6d. 

Vol.  XIX.  THE  RELIGION  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT: 
Its  Place  among  the  Religions  of  the  Nearer  East.  By 
Karl  Marti,  Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis,  Bern.  Crown 
Svo,  cloth.  45.  6d. 

In  a  leading  review  The  Spectator  says: — "  It  is  a  valuable  contribution 
to  a  great  theme  by  one  who  has  devoted  his  life  to  its  study.  Not  only  the 
general  reader,  for  whom  it  is  specially  intended,  but  the  theologian  will  learn 
not  a  little  from  its  pages." 

Vol.  XX.  LUKE,  THE  PHYSICIAN.  By  Adolf  Harnack,  D.D. 
Translated  by  the  Rev.  J.  R.  Wilkinson,  M.A.  Crown  Svo, 
cloth.  6s. 

"  What  is  new  and  interesting  and  valuable  is  the  ratiocination,  the  theorising, 
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stand Professor  Harnack,  not  to  understand  Luke  ;  and  the  study  is  well  worth 
the  time  and  work.  Personally,  I  feel  specially  interested  in  the  question  of 
Luke's  nationality.  On  this  the  author  has  some  admirable  and  suggestive 
pages." — Prof.  Sir  W.  M.  Ramsay  in  The  Expositor. 

Vol.  XXI.  THE  HISTORICAL  EVIDENCE  FOR  THE 
RESURRECTION  OF  JESUS  CHRIST.  By  Kirsopp 
Lake,  Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis  in  the  University  of 
Leiden,  Holland.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  $s. 

Vol.  XXII.  THE  APOLOGETIC  OF  THE  NEW  TESTA- 
MENT. By  E.  F.  Scott,  M.A.,  author  of  "The  Fourth  Gospel : 
Its  Purpose  and  Theology."  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  51. 


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WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


THE  CROWN  THEOLOGICAL  LIBRARY-Continued. 

Vol.  XXIII.  THE  SAYINGS  OF  JESUS.  By  Adolf  Harnack, 
D.D.  Being  Vol.  II.  of  Dr  Harnack's  New  Testament  Studies. 
Crown  8vo,  cloth.  6s. 

Vol.  XXIV.  ANGLICAN  LIBERALISM.  By  Twelve  Church- 
men. Rev.  Hubert  Handley,  Prof.  F.  C.  Burkitt,  M.A.,  D.D., 
Rev.  J.  R.  Wilkinson,  M.A.,  Rev.  C.  R.  Shaw  Stewart,  M.A., 
Rev.  Hastings  Rashdall,  D.Litt.,  D.C.L.,  Prof.  Percy  Gardner, 
Litt.D.,  LL.D.,  Sir  C.  T.  Dyke  Acland,  Rev.  A.  J.  Carlyle,  M.A., 
Rev.  H.  G.  Woods,  D.D.,  Rev.  A.  Caldecott,  D.Litt.,  D.D.,  Rev. 
W.  D.  Morrison,  LL.D.,  Rev.  A.  L.  Lilley,  M.A.  Crown  8vo, 
cloth.  55. 

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writers  uniting  to  claim  the  free  atmosphere  as  the  condition  of  spiritual 
progress. " —  Westminster  Gazette. 

Vol.  XXV.  THE  FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  OF  THE 
CHRISTIAN  RELIGION.  By  R.  Seeberg,  Professor  of 
Systematic  Theology  in  Berlin.  Sixteen  Lectures  delivered  before 
the  Students  of  all  Faculties  in  the  University  of  Berlin.  Crown 
8vo,  350  pp.  5^. 

Vol.  XXVI.  THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES.  By  Adolf 
Harnack,  D.  D.  Being  Vol.  III.  of  Dr  Harnack's  New  Testament 
Studies.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  6s. 

Vol.  XXVII.  THE  LIFE  OF  THE  SPIRIT.  By  Rudolf 
Eucken,  Professor  of  Philosophy  in  Jena.  Second  Edition.  8vo, 
cloth.  $s. 

Vol.  XXVIII.  MONASTICISM  :  Its  Ideals  and  History ;  and 
THE  CONFESSIONS  OF  ST.  AUGUSTINE.  Two 

Lectures  by  Adolf  Harnack,  D.D.  Translated  into  English  by 
E.  E.  Kellett,  M.A.,  and  F.  H.  Marseille,  Ph.D.  Crown  8vo, 
cloth.  4?. 

"  One  might  read  all  the  ponderous  works  of  Montalembert  without  obtaining 
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these  luminous  pages." — Christian  World. 

Vol.  XXIX.  MODERNITY  AND  THE  CHURCHES.  By 
Prof.  Percy  Gardner,  LittD.,  of  Oxford.  Crown  8vo,  cloth. 
5'- 

Vol.  XXX.  THE  OLD  EGYPTIAN  FAITH.  By  Edouard 
Naville,  Hon.  LL.D.,  Ph.D.,  Litt.D.,  Fellow  of  King's  College, 
London,  Professor  of  Egyptology  at  the  University  of  Geneva. 
Translated  by  Colin  Campbell,  M.A.,  D.D.  Illustrated. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  13 

THE  HIBBERT  LECTURES. 

Library   Edition,   demy  8vo,    ios.   6d.    per  volume.     Cheap  Popular 
Edition,  3.?.  6d.  per  volume. 

ALVIELLA  (Count  GOBLET  D').  LECTURES  ON  THE 
ORIGIN  AND  THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  CONCEP- 
TION OF  GOD  AS  ILLUSTRATED  BY  ANTHRO- 
POLOGY AND  HISTORY.  Translated  by  the  Rev.  P.  H. 
Wicksteed.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1891.)  Cloth.  IQJ.  6d.  Cheap 
Edition,  31.  6d. 

BEARD  (Rev.  Dr.  C.).  LECTURES  ON  THE  REFORMA- 
TION OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  IN  ITS 
RELATION  TO  MODERN  THOUGHT  AND  KNOW- 
LEDGE. (Hibbert  Lectures,  1883.)  8vo,  cloth.  ios.  6d. 
Cheap  Edition,  3rd  Edition,  3^.  6d. 

DAVIDS  (T.  W.  RHYS).  LECTURES  ON  SOME  POINTS 
IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  INDIAN  BUDDHISM.  (Hib. 
Lee.,  1881.)  and  Ed.  8vo,  cloth,  ios.  6d.  Cheap  Ed.,  3*.  6d. 

DRUMMOND  (Dr.)  VIA,  VERITAS,  VITA.  Lectures  on 
Christianity  in  its  most  Simple  and  Intelligible  Form.  (The 
Hibbert  Lectures,  1894.)  ios.  6d.  Cheap  Edition,  y.  6d. 

HATCH  (Rev.  Dr.).  LECTURES  ON  THE  INFLUENCE 
OF  GREEK  IDEAS  AND  USAGES  UPON  THE 
CHRISTIAN  CHURCH.  Edited  by  Dr.  Fairbairn.  (Hibbert 
Lectures,  1888.)  3rd  Edition.  8vo,  cloth,  ios.  6d.  Cheap 
Edition,  35.  6d. 

KUENEN  (Dr.  A.).  LECTURES  ON  NATIONAL 
RELIGIONS  AND  UNIVERSAL  RELIGION.  (The 
Hibbert  Lectures,  1882.)  8vo,  cloth,  ios.  6d.  Cheap  Edition, 
y.  6d. 

MONTEFIORE  (C.  G.).  ORIGIN  AND  GROWTH  OF 
RELIGION  AS  ILLUSTRATED  BY  THE  RELIGION 
OF  THE  ANCIENT  HEBREWS.  (The  Hibbert  Lectures, 
1892.)  2nd  Edition.  8vo,  cloth,  ios.  6d.  Cheap  Kdition,  3_r.  6d. 

PFLEIDERER  (Dr.  O.).  LECTURES  ON  THE  IN- 
FLUENCE OF  THE  APOSTLE  PAUL  ON  THE 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  Translated  by 
the  Rev.  J.  Frederick  Smith.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1885.)  2nd 
Edition.  8vo,  cloth,  ios.  6d.  Cheap  Edition,  3*.  6d. 

RENAN  (E.).  ON  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  INSTITU- 
TIONS, THOUGHT,  AND  CULTURE  OF  ROME 
ON  CHRISTIANITY  AND  THE  DEVELOPMENT 
OF  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.  Translated  by  the  Rev. 
Charles  Beard.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1880.)  8vo,  cloth,  ios.  (>d. 
Cheap  Edition,  3rd  Edition,  3.?.  6d. 


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14  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 

THE  HIBBERT  LECTURES-Continued. 

RENOUF  (P.  LE  PAGE).  ON  THE  RELIGION  OF 
ANCIENT  EGYPT.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1879.)  3rd  Edition. 
8vo,  cloth,  los.  6d.  Cheap  Edition,  3*.  6d. 

RHYS  (Prof.  J.).  ON  THE  ORIGIN  AND  GROWTH 
OF  RELIGION  AS  ILLUSTRATED  BY  CELTIC 
HEATHENDOM.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1886.)  8vo,  cloth. 
los.  6d.  Cheap  Edition,  3^.  6d. 

REVILLE  (Dr.  A.).  ON  THE  NATIVE  RELIGIONS  OF 
MEXICO  AND  PERU.  Translated  by  the  Rev.  P.  H. 
Wicksteed.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1884.)  8vo,  cloth,  los.  6d. 
Cheap  Edition,  3_r.  6d. 

SAYCE  (Prof.  A.  H.).  ON  THE  RELIGION  OF 
ANCIENT  ASSYRIA  AND  BABYLONIA.  4th  Edition. 
(Hibbert  Lectures,  1887.)  8vo,  cloth.  los.  6d.  Cheap  Ed. ,  3*.  6d. 

UPTON  (Rev.  C.  B.).  ON  THE  BASES  OF  RE- 
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ADDIS  (W.  E.).  HEBREW  RELIGION.  $s.  See  Crown 
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ALLIN  (Rev.  THOS.).  UNIVERSALISM  ASSERTED 
AS  THE  HOPE  OF  THE  GOSPEL  ON  THE 
AUTHORITY  OF  REASON,  THE  FATHERS,  AND 
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Letter  from  Canon  Wilberforce.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  2s.  6d.  net. 

ALVIELLA  (Count  GOBLET  D').  THE  CONTEMPOR- 
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the  French  by  the  Rev.  J.  Moden.  8vo,  cloth.  IDJ.  6d. 

EVOLUTION    OF    THE   IDEA  OF    GOD.      See  The 

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ANGLICAN  LIBERALISM.  By  Twelve  Churchmen.  5*.  See 
Crown  Theological  Library,  p.  12. 

BAUR  (F.  C.).  CHURCH  HISTORY  OF  THE  FIRST 
THREE  CENTURIES.  2  vols.,  12s.  See  Theological 
Translation  Library,  Old  Series,  p.  7. 

PAUL,    THE    APpSTLE     OF     JESUS     CHRIST. 

2  vols.,  12s.    See  Theological  Translation  Library,  Old  Series,  p.  7. 

BEARD  (Rev.  Dr.  C.).  THE  UNIVERSAL  CHRIST. 
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BEARD  (Rev.  Dr.  C.).  LECTURES  ON  THE  REFORMA- 
TION OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  IN  ITS 
RELATION  TO  MODERN  THOUGHT  AND  KNOW- 
LEDGE. See  The  Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  13. 

BEEBY  (Rev.  C.  E.,  B.D.,  Author  of  "Creed  and  Life"). 
DpCTRINE  AND  PRINCIPLES.  Popular  Lectures  on 
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BE  VAN  (Rev.  J.  O.,  M.A.,  F.G.S.,  F.S.A.,  etc.,  Rector  of 
Chillenden,  Dover).  THE  GENESIS  AND  EVOLUTION 
OF  THE  INDIVIDUAL  SOUL  SCIENTIFICALLY 
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and  Immortality.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  2s.  6d.  net. 

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value,  and  one  that  is  opportune  in  its  publication,  and  besides, per  se,  emphati- 
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BIBLE.  Translated  by  Samuel  Sharpe,  being  a  Revision  of  the 
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of  the  New  Testament.  8vo,  roan.  $s.  See  also  Testament. 

BLEEK(F.).     LECTURES  ON  THE  APOCALYPSE.    See 

Theological  Translation  Library,  Old  Series,  p.  7. 
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cloth.      los.  6d.  net. 

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CAMPBELL  (Rev.  Canon  COLIN,  M.A.,  D.D.,).  FIRST 
THREE  GOSPELS  IN  GREEK.  3*.  6d.  net.  See  Testa- 
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CAMPBELL  (Rev.  R.  J.,  M.A.).  NEW  THEOLOGY 
SERMONS.  Crown  Svo,  cloth.  6s. 

CHANNING'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  Including  "The 
Perfect  Life,"  with  a  Memoir.  Centennial  Edition.  410  Edition. 
Cloth.  7J.  6d. 

CHEYNE  (Prof.  T.  K.).  BIBLE  PROBLEMS  AND  THE 
NEW  MATERIAL  FOR  THEIR  SOLUTION.  5*. 
See  Crown  Theological  Library,  p.  9. 

CHILD   AND    RELIGION.      Edited  by  Thomas  Stephens,  B.  A. 

6s.     See  Crown  Theological  Library,  p.  10. 
CHRISTIAN  CREED  (OUR).     2nd  and  greatly  Revised  Edition. 

Crown  Svo,  cluth.      3*.  6d. 


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COIT  (STANTON,  Ph.D.).  NATIONAL  IDEALISM  AND 
A  STATE  CHURCH. 

"  No  one  reading  this  book  could  miss  its  interest  and  ability.  .  .  .  Criticises 
existing  Christianity  along  lines  almost  literally  opposite  to  those  of  Herbert 
Spencer  and  the  majority  of  the  critics.  .  .  .  Great  clearness  and  eloquence." — 
G.  K.  CHESTERTON  in  The  Nation. 

NATIONAL     IDEALISM     AND     THE    BOOK    OF 

COMMON   PRAYER.      An  Essay  in  Re-Interpretation  and 
Revision.     Demy  8vo,  cloth.     ioi.  6d.  net. 

COMMON  PRAYER  FOR  CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP:  in 
Ten  Services  for  Morning  and  Evening.  321110,  cloth,  is.  6d. 
Also  in  8vo,  cloth.  %s. 

CONWAY  (MONCURE  D.).  CENTENARY  HISTORY 
OF  THE  SOUTH  PLACE  ETHICAL  SOCIETY. 

With  numerous  Portraits,  a  facsimile  of  the  original  MS.  of  the 
hymn,  "Nearer,  my  God,  to  Thee,"  and  Appendices.  Crown 
8vo,  half  vellum,  paper  sides.  $s. 

CORNILL  (Prof.  CARL).  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE 
CANONICAL  BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 

Demy  8vo,  cloth,  los.  6d.  net.  See  Theological  Translation 
Library,  New  Series,  p.  3. 

DAVIDS  (T.  W.  RHYS).  LECTURES  ON  SOME 
POINTS  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  INDIAN  BUDDH- 
ISM. See  The  Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  13. 

DELITZSCH  (F.).  BABEL  AND  BIBLE.  Two  Lectures 
delivered  before  the  Deutsche  Orient-Gesellschaft  in  the  presence 
of  the  German  Emperor.  5^-  See  Crown  Theological  Library, 
p.  9.  See  also  Harnack,  A.,  "Letter  to  Preuss.  fahrbucher"^.  18. 

DOBSCHOTZ  (E.  VON).  CHRISTIAN  LIFE  IN  THE 
PRIMITIVE  CHURCH.  Demy  8vo.  los.  6ct.  See  Theo- 
logical Translation  Library,  New  Series,  p.  3. 

DOLE  (CHARLES  F.).  THE  ETHICS  OF  PROGRESS, 
or  the  Theory  and  the  Practice  by  which  Civilisation 
proceeds.  Small  demy  8vo,  cloth.  65.  net. 

DRIVER  (S.  R.).     See  Mosheh  ben  Shesheth,  p.  22. 

DRUMMOND  (JAMES,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Hon.  Litt.D.,  late 
Principal  of  Manchester  College,  Oxford).  AN  INQUIRY 
INTO  THE  CHARACTER  AND  AUTHORSHIP  OF 
THE  FOURTH  GOSPEL.  New  Edition  in  Preparation. 

"  The  book  is  not  only  learned,  but  also  reverent  and  spiritual  in  tone,  and 
ought  to  find  its  way  into  the  libraries  of  students  of  all  shades  of  belief,  as  a 
very  notable  attempt  to  solve  one  of  the  most  important  of  New  Testament 
problems.  "• — Christian  World. 

VIA,  VERITAS,  VITA.     See  The  Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  13. 

PHILO  JUDyEUS.     Seep.  28. 

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ECHOES  OF  HOLY  THOUGHTS  :  Arranged  as  Private 
Meditations  before  a  First  Communion.  2nd  Edition,  with  a 
Preface  by  Rev.  J.  Hamilton  Thorn.  Printed  with  red  lines. 
Fcap.  8vo,  cloth,  is. 

EUCKEN  (Prof.  RUDOLF).   THE  LIFE  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 

$s.     See  page  12. 

EWALD  (H.).  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  PROPHETS 
OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  See  Theological  Transla- 
tion Library,  Old  Scries,  p.  7. 

-  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  PSALMS.     See  Theological 
Translation  Library,  Old  Series,  p.  7. 

EWALD  (H.).  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  BOOK  OF 
JOB.  See  Theological  Translation  Library,  Old  Series,  p.  7. 

FARNELL  (L.  R.).  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  RELIGION. 
An  Anthropological  Study.  By  L.  R.  Farnell,  D.Litt.,  Fellow 
and  Tutor  of  Exeter  College,  Oxford.  5^.  See  Crown  Theo- 
logical Library,  p.  10. 

FIGG  (E.  G.).  ANALYSIS  OF  THEOLOGY,  NATURAL 
AND  REVEALED.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  6s. 

FORM  BY  (Rev.  C.  W.).  RE-CREATION:  A  New  Aspect 
of  Evolution.  Large  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  5.? 

FOUR  GOSPELS  (THE)  AS   HISTORICAL  RECORDS. 

8vo,  cloth.     15.?. 

GILL    (C.).      THE    EVOLUTION    OF    CHRISTIANITY. 

By  Charles  Gill.     2nd  Edition.     With  Dissertations  in  answer  to 
Criticism.     8vo,  cloth.     12s. 

THE   BOOK   OF   ENOCH   THE   PROPHET.      Trans- 
lated from  an  Ethiopic  MS.  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  by  the  late 
Richard    Laurence,    LL. D.,    Archbishop   of   Cashel.      The   Text 
corrected  from  his  latest  Notes  by  Charles  Gill.      Re-issue,  8vo, 
cloth.     5*. 

HARNACK  (ADOLF).     ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES.     6s. 

See  Crown  Theological  Library,  p.  12. 

MONASTICISM  :    Its   Ideals  and   History  ;    and  THE 

CONFESSIONS  OF  ST.  AUGUSTINE.      Two  Lectures 
by  Adolf  Harnack.      Translated  into  English  by  E.   E.   Kellett, 
M.A.,  and  F.  H.  Marseille,  Ph.D.,  M.A.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.    4*. 

"  The  lectures  impart  to  these  old  subjects  .1  new  and  vivid  interest  which 
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"  One  might  read  all  the  ponderous  volumes  of  Montalembert  without 
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14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 
2 


t8  WILLIAMS   &  NORGATE'S 


ALPHABETICAL   LIST-Continued. 

HARNACK  (ADOLF).  LETTER  to  the  "  Preussische  Jahr- 
biicher "  on  the  German  Emperor's  Criticism  of  Prof. 
Delitzsch's  Lectures  on  "Babel  and  Bible."  Translated  into 
English  by  Thomas  Bailey  Saunders.  6d.  net. 

-LUKE,   THE   PHYSICIAN.      6*.      See  Crown  Theological 
Library,  p.  1 1 . 

-  HISTORY  OF  DOGMA.     7  vols.,  los.  6d.  each.     See  Theo- 
logical Translation  Library,  New  Series,  p.  4. 

-THE  SAYINGS  OF  JESUS.     6s.     See  Crown  Theological 
Library,  p.  12. 

-  WHAT    IS    CHRISTIANITY?     See   Theological    Trans- 
lation Library,  New  Series,  p.  5.     Also  Crown  Theological  Library, 
p.    IO.     5.?.     See  Saunders  (T.   B.),    "Professor  Harnack  and  his 
Oxford  Critics,"  p.  24. 

• MISSION  AND   EXPANSION   OF  CHRISTIANITY 

IN  THE  FIRST  THREE  CENTURIES.  By  Adolf 
Harnack,  D.  D.,  Berlin.  Entirely  new  edition,  re-written,  with 
numerous  additions  and  maps.  2  vols.  demy  8vo,  cloth.  25^.  net. 

and   HERRMANN  (Dr.    WILHELM).      ESSAYS  ON 

THE  SOCIAL  GOSPEL.  45.  6ct.  Translation  edited  by 
Maurice  A.  Canney,  M.  A.  See  Crown  Theological  Library,  p.  n 

HATCH  (Rev.  Dr.).  LECTURES  ON  THE  INFLUENCE 
OF  GREEK  IDEAS  AND  USAGES  UPON  THE 
CHRISTIAN  CHURCH.  See  The  Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  13. 

HAUSRATH  (Prof.  A.).  HISTORY  OF  THE  NEW 
TESTAMENT  TIMES.  The  Time  of  the  Apostles.  Trans- 
lated by  Leonard  Huxley.  With  a  Preface  by  Mrs  Humphry 
Ward.  4  vols.  8vo,  cloth.  425-.  (Uniform  with  the  Theological 
Translation  Library,  Old  Series.) 

-  NEW    TESTAMENT    TIMES.       The    Times   of   Jesus. 
2  vols.     I2J-.    See  Theological  Translation  Library,  Old  Series,  p.  7. 

HEBREW  TEXTS,  in  large  type  for  Classes  : 

Genesis.     2nd  Edition.     161110,  cloth.     U.  6d. 
Psalms.     i6mo,  cloth,     is. 
Isaiah.     i6mo,  cloth.     \s. 
Job.     i6mo,  cloth,     is. 

HENSLOW(Rev.  G.).  THE  ARGUMENT  OF  ADAPTA- 
TION ;  or,  Natural  Theology  reconsidered.  8vo,  cloth,  is. 

SPIRITUAL   TEACHINGS    OF    BIBLE    PLANTS; 

or,  The  Garden  of  God.     Svo,  cloth,     is. 

-  THE  AT-ONE-MENT  ;  or,  The  Gospel  of  Reconciliation. 
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CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  19 

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HENSLOW  (Rev.  G.).  THE  SPIRITUAL  TEACHING 
OF  CHRIST'S  LIFE.  8vo,  cloth.  51.  net. 

-  CHRIST    NO    PRODUCT    OF    EVOLUTION.      8vo, 

cloth,      is. 

-VULGATE,  THE:  The  Source  of  False  Doctrines. 
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other  exponents  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ.  Crown  8vo,  cloth. 
2s.  (>d.  net. 

HERFORD  (R.  TRAVERS,  B.A.).  CHRISTIANITY  IN 
TALMUD  AND  MIDRASH.  Demy  8vo,  cloth.  i8j.  net. 

CONTENTS : — Introduction.  Division  I.  Passages  from  the 
Rabbinical  Literature  :  A.  Passages  relating  to  Jesus.  B.  Passages 
relating  to  Minim,  Minuth.  Division  II.  General  Results.  Appen- 
dix containing  the  Original  Texts  of  the  Passages  translated. 
Indices. 

"It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  it  will  prove  indispensable  not  only  to 
scholars  interested  in  Talmudic  literature,  but  to  all  who  study  the  subject  of 
the  evangelical  tradition.  It  will  introduce  the  reader  into  a  new  world — that 
of  Jewish  thought  in  the  centuries  after  Christ." — Cambridge  Review. 

HERRMANN     (W.).      THE     COMMUNION     OF     THE 
CHRISTIAN  WITH  GOD.    $s.    See  Theological  Translation 
Library,  New  Series,  p.  5- 
—  FAITH    AND    MORALS.       55.       See    Crown    Theological 

Library,  p.  9. 

—  and  H  ARNACK  (ADOLF.).    ESSAYS  ON  THE  SOCIAL 
GOSPEL.     4J.  6d.     See  Crown  Theological  Library,  p.  II. 

HIBBERT  JOURNAL:  A  Quarterly  Review  of  Religion, 
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HIBBERT  JOURNAL  SUPPLEMENT,  1909,  entitled 
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writers  : — The  late  Rev.  George  Tyrrell,  The  Bishop  of  Southwark, 
Professor  II.  Weinel,  Professor  Percy  Gardner,  Professor  P. 
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Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  Canon  H.  Scott  Holland,  The  Rev.  Father 
Joseph  Rickaby,  S.J.,  Professor  Nathan  Soderblom  (Upsala). ,  Rev. 
Principal  A.  E.  Garvie,  DA).,  The  Rev.  R.  J.  Campbell,  M.A., 
The  Rev.  James  Drummond,  D.  D.,  Professor  B.  W.  Bacon,  D. D. , 
Rev.  Principal  J.  E.  Carpenter,  D.D. ,  Mr  James  Collier,  The 
Rev.  R.  Roberts.  Super-royal  8vo,  cloth.  $s.  net. 

HOERNING  (Dr.  R.).  THE  KARAITE  MSS.,  BRITISH 
MUSEUM.  The  Karaite  Exodus  (i.  to  viii.  5)  in  Forty-two 
Autotype  Facsimiles,  with  a  Transcription  in  ordinary  Arabic  type. 
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MSS.  of  portions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  in  Arabic  characters  in  the 
same  Collection.  Royal  4to,  cloth,  gilt  top.  2O.r. 

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HUNTER  (Rev.  J.,  D.D.).  DE  PROFUNDIS  CLAMAVI, 
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THE  COMING  CHURCH.     A  Plea  for  a  Church  simply 

Christian.     Cloth,     is.  6d.  net. 

JOHNSON  (EDWIN,  M.A.).  THE  RISE  OF  CHRISTEN- 
DOM. Demy  8vo,  cloth.  Js.  6ct. 

JOHNSON  (EDWIN,  M.A.).  ANTIQUA  MATER  :  A  Study 
of  Christian  Origins.  Crown  8vo,  cloth,  zs.  6d. 

THE   RISE   OF   ENGLISH    CULTURE.     Demy  8vo, 

cloth.     i  $s.  net. 

JONES  (Rev.  R.  CROMPTON).  HYMNS  OF  DUTY  AND 
FAITH.  Selected  and  Arranged.  247  pp.  Fcap.  8vo,  cloth. 
2nd  Edition.  3^.  6d. 

CHANTS,    PSALMS,    AND    CANTICLES.      Selected 

and  Pointed  for  Chanting.     i8mo,  cloth,     is.  6d. 

ANTHEMS.      With   Indexes  and   References   to  the   Music. 

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THE  CHANTS  AND  ANTHEMS.     Together  in  i  vol., 

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A  BOOK  OF  PRAYER.     In  Thirty  Orders  of  Worship,  with 

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With  Chants,  in  I  vol.  i8mo,  cloth.     3.?. 

KAUTZSCH  (E.).  AN  OUTLINE  OF  THE  HISTORY 
OF  THE  LITERATURE  OF  THE  OLD  TESTA- 
MENT. With  Chronological  Tables  for  the  History  of  the 
Israelites,  and  other  Aids  to  the  Explanation  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Reprinted  from  the  "Supplement  to  the  Translation  of  the  Old 
Testament."  By  E.  Kautzsch,  Professor  of  Theology  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Halle.  Edited  by  the  Author.  Translated  by  John 
Taylor,  D.LiL,  M.A.,  etc.  Demy  8vo,  cloth.  6s.  6d. 

"  This  English  translation  ...  is  likely  to  prove  very  acceptable  to  all  those 
students  who  desire  to  see  for  themselves  the  view  taken  by  the  'higher  critics  ' 
of  the  growth  of  the  Old  Testament." — The  Guardian. 

"Dr.  Taylor  has  rendered  a  great  service  to  the  English  readers  by  his 
excellent  translation  of  this  important  work." — British  Weekly. 

KEIM'S  HISTORY  OF  JESUS  OF  NAZARA.  6  vols. 
6.?.  each.  See  Theological  Translation  Library,  Old  Series,  p.  7. 

KENNEDY  (Rev.  JAS.).  BIBLICAL  HEBREW.  izs. 
See  p.  34. 

KITTEL  (R.).  HISTORY  OF  THE  HEBREWS.  2  vols. 
icxr.  6d.  each.  See  Theological  Translation  Library,  New  Series,  p.  5. 

KUENEN  (Dr.  A.).  LECTURES  ON  NATIONAL  AND 
UNIVERSAL  RELIGIONS.  See  The  Hibbert  Lectures, 
P-  13- 

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CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  21 

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KUENEN  (Dr.  A.).  THE  RELIGION  OF  ISRAEL  TO 
THE  FALL  OF  THE  JEWISH  STATE.  3  vols.  i%s. 
See  Theological  Translation  Library,  Old  Series,  p.  8. 

LAKE  (Professor  KIRSOPP).  THE  HISTORICAL  EVI- 
DENCE FOR  THE  RESURRECTION  OF  JESUS 
CHRIST.  55.  See  Crown  Theological  Library,  p.  1 1 . 

LEA  (HENRY  CHARLES,  LL.D.).  HISTORY  OF  SAC- 
ERDOTAL CELIBACY  IN  THE  CHRISTIAN 
CHURCH.  Third  Edition.  Thoroughly  Revised  and  Reset. 
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LOBSTEIN(P.).  THE  DOGMA  OF  THE  VIRGIN  BIRTH 
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LODGE  (Sir  O.).  LIFE  AND  MATTER.  An  Exposition 
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MACAN  (R.  W.).  THE  RESURRECTION  OF  JESUS 
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MARTI  (KARL).  RELIGION  OF  THE  OLD  TESTA- 
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MARTINEAU  (Rev.  Dr.  JAMES).  THE  RELATION 
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tures, p.  13. 

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MiiNSTERBERG   (Prof.    HUGO).      THE   AMERICANS. 

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NESTLE  (E.).  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  TEXTUAL 
CRITICISM  OF  THE  GREEK  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

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OTTO  (R.).  NATURALISM  AND  RELIGION.  6.r.  See 
Crown  Theological  Library,  p.  n. 

PERCIVAL  (G.  H.).  THE  INCARNATE  PURPOSE. 
Essays  on  the  Spiritual  Unity  of  Life.  Crown  8vo,  cloth,  zs.  6d. 
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PERRIN  (R.  S.).  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 
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PERSONAL  AND  FAMILY  PRAYERS.  8vo,  buckram. 
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PETERS    (JOHN    P.).      EARLY   HEBREW  STORY.      A 

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p.  10. 

PFLEIDERER  (Dr.  O.).  LECTURES  ON  THE  IN- 
FLUENCE OF  THE  APOSTLE  PAUL  ON  THE 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  See  The 
Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  13. 

PAULINISM  :  A  Contribution  to  the  History  of  Primitive 

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Old  Series,  p.  8. 

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CATALOGUE  OF   PUBLICATIONS.  23 


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logical Library,  p.  10. 

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New  Series,  p.  2. 

PICTON,  (J.  ALLANSON,  M.A.,  Lond.).  MAN  AND  THE 
BIBLE.  A  Review  of  the  Place  of  the  Bible  in  Human 
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POOLE  (REG.  LANE).  ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  THE 
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PROTESTANT  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  NEW  TES- 
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Old  Series,  p.  8. 

RENAN  (E.).  ON  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  INSTI- 
TUTIONS, THOUGHT,  AND  CULTURE  OF  ROME 
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RENOUF  (P.  LE  PAGE).  ON  THE  RELIGION  OF 
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SAYCE  (A.  H.).  ON  THE  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT 
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UPTON  (C.  B.).  ON  THE  BASES  OF  RELIGIOUS 
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WEIR  (T.  H.,  B.D.).  A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE 
HEBREW  TEXT  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  By 
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WEIZSACKER  (C.  von).  THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE.  2  vols. 
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WERNLE  (PAUL).  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  CHRIS-; 
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WICKSTEED  (Rev.  P.  H.).  THE  ECCLESIASTICAL 
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WOODS   (C.  E.)     THE  GOSPEL  OF  RIGHTNESS.     A 

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WRIGHT  (Rev.  C.  H.  H.).  BOOK  OF  GENESIS  IN 
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28  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


II.   Philosophy,   Psychology. 

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DRUMMOND  (Dr.).  PHILO  JUD^EUS;  or,  The  Jewish 
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HODGSON  (S.  H.).     PHILOSOPHY  AND  EXPERIENCE. 

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-  THE      REORGANISATION      OF       PHILOSOPHY. 

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LAURIE  (Professor  SIMON).  ETHICA:  or,  The  Ethics  of 
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-  METAPHYSICA  NOVA  ET  VETUSTA:  A  Return  to 
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PERRIN  (R.  S.).  EVOLUTION  OF  KNOWLEDGE, 
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PIKLER  (JUL.).  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE 
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PROCEEDINGS    OF  THE  ARISTOTELIAN    SOCIETY 
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SHEARMAN  (A.  T.,  M.A.).  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF 
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CATALOGUE  OF   PUBLICATIONS.  31 

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FROM  THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  M.  COMTE.  Sewed. 
6rf. 

DESCRIPTIVE  SOCIOLOGY;  or,  Groups  of  Socio- 
logical Facts.  Compiled  and  abstracted  by  Professor  D. 
Duncan  of  Madras,  Dr.  Richard  Scheppig,  and  James  Collier. 
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Edited  by  Henry  R.  Tedder,  Secretary  and  Librarian  of  the 
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Chinese.  Compiled  and  abstracted  by  E.  T.  C.  Werner, 
H.M.'s  Consular  Service,  China. 

Ancient  Egyptians. 

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fessor W.  A.  Goligher,  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

Hellenistic  Greeks.     By  the  same. 

Romans.  By  Mr  E.  H.  Alton,  F.T.C.D.,  and  Professor 
W.  A.  Goligher. 

COLLINS  (F.  H.).  AN  EPITOME  OF  THE  SYN- 
THETIC PHILOSOPHY.  By  F.  Howard  Collins.  Being 
a  Digest  of  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer's  Works.  5th  Edition,  the 
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no  pages.  Vol.  IV.  1896,  141  pages.  Vol.  V.  1897,  105  pages. 
Vol.  VI.  1898,  105  pages. 

WUNDT  (WILHELM).  OUTLINES  OF  PSYCHOL- 
OGY. Translated,  with  the  co-operation  of  the  Author,  by 
Charles  Hubbard  Judd,  Ph.D.,  Instructor  in  the  Wesleyan 
University.  3rd  Enlarged  Edition  Demy  8vo,  cloth.  Ss.  net. 

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CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  33 


III.    Oriental    Languages,   Literature, 
and  History. 

ABHIDHANARATNAMALA   (THE)   OF    HALAYUDHA. 

A  Sanskrit  Vocabulary  (120 pp.).  Edited,  with  a  Sanskrit-English 
Glossary  (180  pp.),  by  Dr.  T.  Aufrecht.  8vo,  cloth.  (Published 
at  iSs.)  IQS. 

AVESTI,  PAHLAVI,  and  ANCIENT  PERSIAN  STUDIES 
in  Honour  of  the  late  SHAMS-UL-ULAMA  DASTUR 
PESHOTANJI  BEHRAMJI  SANJANA,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 
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BERNSTEIN  and  KIRSCH.  SYRIAC  CHRESTOMATHY 
AND  LEXICON  (Chrestomathia  Syriaca  cum  Lexico). 
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separately.  Sewed,  y. 

DAVIDS  (T.  W.  RHYS).  LECTURES  ON  SOME  POINTS 
IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  INDIAN  BUDDHISM.  See 
The  Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  13. 

DELITZSCH  (Prof.  F.).  ASSYRIAN  GRAMMAR.  With 
Paradigms,  Exercises,  Glossary,  and  Bibliography.  Translated  by 
the  Rev.  Prof.  A.  R.  S.  Kennedy.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  15*. 

THE    HEBREW    LANGUAGE    VIEWED    IN    THE 

LIGHT    OF    ASSYRIAN     RESEARCH.        Demy    8vo, 
cloth.     4^. 

BABEL  AND  BIBLE.     5*.     See  Crown  Theological  Library, 

p.  9- 

DILLMANN  (A.).  ETHIOPIC  GRAMMAR.  Translated 
from  C.  Bezold's  Second  German  Edition.  By  Rev.  J.  A. 
Crichton,  D.D.,  with  Index  of  Passages,  Philological  Tables,  etc. 
I  Tol.,  Royal  8vo.  251.  net. 

DtPAVAMSA  (THE):  A  Buddhist  Historical  Record  in  the 
Pali  Language.  Edited,  with  an  English  Translation,  by  Dr. 
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Ceylon. 

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3 


34  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 

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Egyptology  in  the  University  of  Chicago.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  iSs. 

EVANS    (GEORGE).      AN  ESSAY  ON  ASSYRIOLOGY. 

With  410  Tables  of  Assyrian  Inscriptions.     8vo,  cloth.     5^. 

FAIZULLAH-BHAI  (Shaikh,  B.D.).  A  MOSLEM 
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AN    ESSAY    ON    THE    PRE-ISLAMITIC    ARABIC 

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FRANKFURTER  (Dr.  O.).  HANDBOOK  OF  PALI :  Being 
an  Elementary  Grammar,  a  Chrestomathy,  and  a  Glossary. 
8vo,  cloth.  i6s. 

FUERST  (Dr.  JUL.).  HEBREW  AND  CHALDEE 
LEXICON  TO  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT,  sth  Edition, 
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HEBREW  TEXTS.     Large  type.     i6mo,  cloth. 

Genesis.    (2nd  Edition.    Baer  and  Deli tzsch's  Text. )    is.  6d. 
Psalms,     is. 
Job.     is. 
Isaiah,     i  •. 

KENNEDY  (Rev.  JAS.).  INTRODUCTION  TO  BIBLICAL 
HEBREW,  presenting  Graduated  Instruction  in  the 
Language  of  the  Old  Testament.  By  James  Kennedy,  B.D., 
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STUDIES    IN    HEBREW    SYNONYMS.     Demy  8vo, 

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LYALL  (C.  J.,  M.A.,  K.C.I.E.).  ANCIENT  ARABIAN 
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CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  35 

MACHBEROTH  ITHIEL.  By  Yehuda  ben  Shelomoh  Alcharizi. 
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Chenery,  M.A.  8vo,  cloth.  3*. 

MILANDA  PANHO,  THE :  Being  Dialogues  between  King 
Milanda  and  the  Buddhist  Sage  Nagasena.  The  Pali  Text, 
edited  by  V.  Trenckner.  440  pp.  8vo,  sewed.  2is.  See  also 
"  Pali  Miscellany." 

MOSHEH  BEN  SHESHETH'S  COMMENTARY  ON 
JEREMIAH  AND  EZEKIEL.  Seep.  22. 

MUSS-ARNOLT  (W.).  A  CONCISE  DICTIONARY  OF 
THE  ASSYRIAN  LANGUAGE  (Assyrian— English- 
German).  By  W.  Muss-Arnolt.  Completed  in  19  parts.  Each 
S.T.  net. ;  or  bound  in  2  vols.,  .£5  net. 

NEW  HEBREW  SCHOOL  of  POETS  of  the  SPANISH- 
ARABIAN  EPOCH.  Selected  Texts  with  Introduction,  Notes, 
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(Bohemia),  and  K.  Albrecht,  Ph.D.,  Professor  in  Oldenburg 
(Grand  Duchy).  English  translation  of  the  Introduction,  etc.,  by 
Mrs  Karl  Albrecht.  Cloth.  Js.  6d.  net. 

NOLDEKE  (THEODOR,  Professor  of  Oriental  Languages 
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Euting.  Translated  (with  the  sanction  of  the  author)  from  the 
second  and  improved  German  Edition  by  Rev.  James  A.  Crichton, 
D.D.  Royal  8vo.  i8j.net. 

DELECTUS     VETERUM      CARMINUM     ARABI- 

CORUM   GLOSSARIUM    CONFECIT  A.    MULLER. 

Crown  8vo,  cloth,     js.  6d. 

NORRIS  (E.).  ASSYRIAN  DICTIONARY.  Intended  to 
further  the  Study  of  the  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  Assyria  and 
Babylonia.  Vols.  I.  to  III.  410,  cloth.  Each  28*. 

OLDENBERG  (Prof.  H.).  BUDDHA :  His  Life,  his  Doctrine, 
his  Order.  By  Dr.  Hermann  Oldenberg,  Professor  at  the 
University  of  Berlin.  Translated  by  W.  Iloey,  M.A.  8vo,  cloth 
gilt.  i8s. 

PALI  MISCELLANY.  By  V.  Trenckner.  Part  I.  The  Intro- 
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and  Notes.  8vo,  sewed.  4_r. 

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36  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 

PLATTS  (J.  T.).  A  GRAMMAR  OF  THE  PERSIAN 
LANGUAGE.  By  John  T.  Platts,  Hon.  M.A.  (Oxon.),  Teacher 
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RENOUF  (P.  LE  PAGE).  LECTURES  ON  THE  RE- 
LIGION OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  See  Hibbert  Lectures, 
p.  14. 

SADI.  THE  GULISTAN  (ROSE  GARDEN)  OF  SHAIK 
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a  Vocabulary,  by  F.  Johnson.  Square  royal  8vo,  cloth.  15*. 

SAYCE  (Prof.  A.  H.).  LECTURES  ON  THE  RELIGIONS 
OF  ANCIENT  BABYLONIA  AND  SYRIA.  See  the 
Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  14. 

SCHRADER  (E.).  THE  CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS 
AND  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  2  vols.  12*.  See 
Theological  Translation  Library,  Old  Series,  p.  8. 

SHIHAB  AL  DIN.  FUTUH  AL-HABASHAH  ;  or,  The 
Conquest  of  Abyssinia.  By  Shinab  al  Din  Ahmad  B.  'Abd  al 
Kadir  B.  Salim  B.  'Uthman.  Edited,  from  an  Arabic  MS.,  by 
S.  Arthur  Strong.  Part  I.  8vo,  sewed.  3*.  net. 

SORENSEN  (S.,  Ph.D.),  Compiled  by.  AN  INDEX  TO 
THE  NAMES  IN  THE  MAHABHARATA.  With  short 
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separately,  at  Js.  6d.  per  part  net.  Parts  I.  and  V.  now  ready. 

STATUTES,  THE,  OF  THE  APOSTLES.  The  hitherto 
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TEXT  AND  TRANSLATION  SOCIETY.  Established  for  the 
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THE  CANONS  OF  ATHANASIUS  OF  ALEX- 
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and  Translated  by  Prof.  W.  Riedel  (Griefswald)  and  W.  E. 
Crum.  2is.  net. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF   PUBLICATIONS.  37 

TEXT  AND  TRANSLATION  SOCIETY-continued. 

Volumes  already  issued — 

A  RABBINIC  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  BOOK  OF 
JOB,  contained  in  a  unique  MS.  at  Cambridge. 

Edited,    with  Translation   and    Commentary,    by   W.    Aldis 
Wright,  LL.D.     21  s.  net. 

AN  ANCIENT  ARMENIAN  VERSION  OF  THE 
APOCALYPSE  OF  ST  JOHN;  also  THE  ARME- 
NIAN TEXTS  OF  CYRIL  OF  ALEXANDRIA, 
SCHOLIA  DE  INCARNATIONE  and  EPISTLE 
TO  THEODOSIUS  UPON  EASTER,  the  former  in- 
completely preserved  in  Greek,  the  latter  unknown  in  Greek 
or  Latin.  All  edited,  with  English  versions,  etc.,  by  F.  C. 
Conybeare,  formerly  Fellow  of  University  College,  Oxford. 

REMNANTS  OF  THE  LATER  SYRIAC  VERSIONS 
OF  THE  BIBLE.  Part  I.  (Sixth  Century).  The  Four 
Minor  Catholic  Epistles.  Reconstructed  Text,  with  Apparatus 
Criticus.  Part  II.  (Seventh  Century).  Extracts,  hitherto  un- 
edited, from  the  Syro-Hexaplar  Text  of  Chronicles,  Nehemiah, 
etc.  All  edited,  with  Greek  versions,  etc.,  by  John  Gwynn, 
D.  D.,  Regius  Professor  of  Divinity,  Dublin. 

In  the  Press. 

THE  REFUTATION  OF  MANI,  MARCION,  AND 
BARDAISAN  OF  ST  EPHRAIM.  Edited  by  the 
Rev.  C.  W.  Mitchell. 


TURPIE  (Dr.  D.  McC.).  MANUAL  OF  THE  CHALDEE 
LANGUAGE.  Containing  Grammar  of  the  Biblical  Chaldee 
and  of  the  Targums,  and  a  Chrestomathy,  with  a  Vocabulary. 
Square  8vo,  cloth.  fs. 

VINAYA  PITAKAM  :  One  of  the  Principal  Buddhist  Holy 
Scriptures.  Kdited  in  Pali  by  Dr.  II.  Oldenberg.  5  vols.  8vo, 
cloth.  Each  2is. 

WALLIS  (H.  W.).  THE  COSMOLOGY  OF  THE  RIG- 
VEDA  :  An  Essay.  8vo,  cloth.  5*. 


14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


38  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


IV.   Modern  Languages  &  Literature. 

A  complete  list  of  Messrs.  Williams  &  Norgate's  Educational  Publi- 
cations on  Modem  Languages  may  be  had  on  application. 


ARMY  SERIES  OF  FRENCH  AND  GERMAN  NOVELS. 
Edited,  with  short  Notes,  by  J.  T.  W.  Perowne,  M.A. 

This  series  is  equally  well  adapted  for  general  reading,  and  for  those 
preparing  for  the  Army,  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Certificates,  and  other 
Examinations — in  fact,  for  all  who  wish  to  keep  up  or  improve  their  French 
and  German.  The  notes  are  as  concise  as  possible,  with  an  occasional 
etymology  or  illustration  to  assist  the  memory.  The  books  selected  being 
by  recent  or  living  authors,  are  adapted  for  the  study  of  most  modern  French 
and  German. 

LE  COUP  DE  PISTOLET,  etc.    Prosper  Merimee.    zs.  6d. 

"A  book  more  admirably  suited  toils  purpose  could  not  be  desired.  The 
Editors  deserve  to  be  congratulated." — National  Observer. 

VAILLANTE.     Jacques  Vincent.     2s.  6d. 

"  The  books  are  well  got  up,  and  in  Vaillante  an  excellent  choice  has  been 
made." — Guardian. 

AUF   VERLORNEM    POSTEN   AND    NAZZARENA 
DANTI.     Johannes  v.  Dewall.     3*. 

"Well  piinted,  well  bound,  and  annotated  just  sufficiently  to  make  the 
reading  of  them  sure  as  well  as  easy." — Educational  Times. 

CONTES  MILITAIRES.     A.  Daudet.     2s.  6d. 

"  These  stories  are  mainly  culled  from  a  series  called  C 'antes  du  Lundi, 
originally  contributed  by  their  author  to  the  Figaro.  Written  at  fever  heat 
immediately  after  the  great  1870  war,  they  show  Daudet's  power  in  many  ways 
at  its  highest.  .  .  .  We  therefore  do  more  than  recommend — we  urge  all 
readers  of  French  to  get  the  stories  in  some  form,  and  the  present  one  is  both 
good  and  cheap." — The  Schoolmaster. 

ERZAHLUNGEN.     E.  Hofer.     3*. 

"  The  series  has  brought  fascinating  examples  of  fiction  under  the  eyes  of 
English  readers  in  a  neat  and  handy  form.  Besides  having  the  military  flavour, 
they  are  models  of  style." — Scotsman. 


BAYLDON  (Rev.  G.).  ICELANDIC  GRAMMAR.  An 
Elementary  Grammar  of  the  Old  Norse  or  Icelandic  Language. 
8vo,  cloth.  Js.  6d. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  39 


BOIELLE  (IAS.)-  FRENCH  COMPOSITION  THROUGH 
LpRD  MACAU  LAY'S  ENGLISH.  Edited,  with  Notes, 
Hints,  and  Introduction,  by  the  late  James  Boielle,  B.A.  (Univ. 
Gall.),  Officier  d' Academic,  Senior  French  Master,  Dulwich 
College,  etc.,  etc.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  Vol.  I.  Frederick  the 
Great.  3*.  Vol.  II.  Warren  Hastings.  3*.  Vol.  III.  Lord 
Clive.  3j. 

See  Victor  Hugo,  "Les  Miserables"  and  "Notre  Dame." 

DELBOS  (L.).  NAUTICAL  TERMS  IN  ENGLISH 
AND  FRENCH  AND  FRENCH  AND  ENGLISH. 

With  Notes  and  Tables.  For  the  use  of  Naval  Officers  and  Naval 
Cadets.  By  Leon  Delbos,  M. A.,  of  H.M.S.  Britannia,  Dart- 
mouth. 4th  Edition,  thoroughly  revised  and  considerably 
enlarged,  with  additional  Plates.  Crown  8vo,  cloth,  fs.  6d.  net. 

THE   STUDENT'S   GRADUATED   FRENCH 

READER.     Remodelled  and  rewritten.     Edited,  with  Notes  and 
a  Complete  Vocabulary.     First  Year — Part  I.  Anecdotes,  Tales, 
and  Exercises.     Part  II.  Tales,  Historical  Pieces,  and  Exercises. 
is.  6d.  each.     Second  Year — Parts  I.  and  II.  in  the  Press. 

EUGENE'S  STUDENT'S  COMPARATIVE  GRAMMAR 
OF  THE  FRENCH  LANGUAGE,  with  an  Historical 
Sketch  of  the  Formation  of  French.  For  the  use  of  Public 
Schools.  With  Exercises.  By  G.  Eugene-Fasnacht,  late  French 
Master,  Westminster  School.  23rd  Edition,  thoroughly  revised. 
Square  crown  8vo,  cloth,  $s.  ;  or  separately,  Grammar,  3-r.  ; 
Exercises,  2s.  6d. 

GOETHE  (W.v.).  ANNOTATED  TEXTS.  See  Educational 
Catalogue. 

HAGMANN  (J.G.,  Ph.D.).  REFORM  IN  PRIMARY  EDU- 
CATION. Translated  from  Second  German  Edition  by  R.  II. 
Hoar,  Ph.D.,  and  Richmond  Barker,  M.A.  Cr.  8vo,  cl.,  2s.  6d.  net. 

HUGO  (VICTOR).  LES  MISERABLES:  Les  Principaux 
Episodes.  Edited,  with  Life  and  Notes,  by  the  late  J.  Boielle. 
2  vols.  6th  Edition.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  Each  $s,  ftd. 

NOTRE    DAME  DE  PARIS.      Adapted    for   the  use  of 

Schools  and  Colleges.      By  the   late  J.   Boielle.      2  vols.     2nd 
Edition.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     Each  3*. 

KYRIAKIDES  (A.).  MODERN  GREEK-ENGLISH  DIC- 
TIONARY. With  a  Cypriote  Vocabulary.  2nd  Edition, 
revised  throughout.  Medium  8vo.  920  pages.  Cloth.  I5i.net. 


14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


40  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 

LEABHAR  BREAC.  The  "Speckled  Book,"  otherwise  styled, 
"The  Great  Book  of  Dun  Doighre":  a  Collection  of  Pieces  in 
Irish  and  Latin,  transcribed  towards  the  close  of  the  Fourteenth 
Century.  "The  oldest  and  best  Irish  MS.  relating  to  Church 
History  now  preserved"  (G.  Pctric).  Now  first  published,  from 
the  original  MS.  in  the  Royal  Irish  Academy's  Library.  In 
imperial  folio,  on  toned  paper.  In  one  vol.,  half-calf,  ^4>  4J- 
(200  copies  only  printed. ) 

LEABHAR  NA  H-UIDHRI.  A  Collection  of  Pieces  in  Prose 
and  Verse,  in  the  Irish  Language,  transcribed  about  A.D.  noo; 
the  oldest  volume  now  known  entirely  in  the  Irish  language, 
and  one  of  the  chief  surviving  native  literary  monuments — not 
ecclesiastical — of  ancient  Ireland ;  now  for  the  first  time  pub- 
lished, from  the  original  in  the  Library  of  the  Royal  Irish 
Academy,  with  account  of  the  Manuscript,  description  of  its 
contents,  index,  and  facsimiles  in  colours.  In  folio  on  toned 
paper,  half-calf.  £3,  3-r.  (200  copies  only  printed. ) 

LILJA  (The  Lily).  An  Icelandic  Religious  Poem.  By  Eystein 
Asgrimson.  Edited,  with  Translation,  Notes,  and  Glossary,  by 
E.  Magnusson.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  extra.  IQS.  6d. 

LODGE  (Sir  O.).  SCHOOL  TEACHING  AND  SCHOOL 
REFORM.  A  Course  of  Four  Lectures  on  School  Curricula 
and  Methods,  delivered  to  Secondary  Teachers  and  Teachers  in 
Training  at  Birmingham  during  February  1905.  y. 

"  The  work  of  a  sensible  iconoclast,  who  does  not  pull  down  for  the  sake  ot 
mere  destruction,  but  is  anxious  to  set  up  something  more  worthy  in  place  of 
the  medievalism  he  attacks."—  Outlook. 

"  Let  me  commend  this  wise  volume  not  only  to  teachers  but  to  all  concerned 
in  national  education.  And  especially  to  the  politician.  Half  an  hour  with 
Sir  Oliver  Lodge  would  make  him  realise  that  there  are  problems  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  school  door  not  dreamt  of  in  his  philosophy — would  make  him  feel 
that  the  more  he  knows  of  these  the  better  will  he  be  able  wisely  to  handle  those 
others  about  which  he  is  glibly  talking  every  day." — Dr  MACNAMARA  in  the 
Daily  Chronicle. 

MAORI.  NEW  AND  COMPLETE  MANUAL  OF 
MAORI  CONVERSATIONS.  Containing  Phrases  and 
Dialogues  on  a  variety  of  Topics,  together  with  a  few  general 
rules  of  Grammar,  and  a  comprehensive  Vocabulary.  4^.  net. 
See  also  Williams. 

MARKHAM  (Sir  CLEMENTS,  K.C.B.).  VOCABULARIES 
OF  THE  GENERAL  LANGUAGE  OF  THE  INCAS 
OF  PERU.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  7s.  6d.  net 

NIBELUNGENLIED.  "The  Fall  of  the  Nibelungens,"  other- 
wise "The  Book  of  Kriemhild."  An  English  Translation  by 
W.  N.  Lettsom.  5th  Edition.  8vo,  cloth.  5*. 


14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  41 

O'GRADY  (STANDISH  H.).  SILVA  GADELICA  (I.- 
XXXI.).  A  Collection  of  Tales  in  Irish,  with  Extracts  illus- 
trating Persons  and  Places.  Edited  from  MSS.  and  translated. 
2  vols.  royal  8vo,  cloth.  42^.  Or  separately,  VoL  I.,  Irish 
Text;  and  Vol.  II.,  Translation  and  Notes.  Each  vol.  21  s. 

OORDT  (J.  F.  VAN,  B.A.).  CAPE  DUTCH.  Phrases  and 
Dialogues,  with  Translations,  preceded  by  short  Grammatical 
Notes.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  2s.  6d,  net. 

PHILLIPPS  (V.,  B.A.).  A  SHORT  SKETCH  OF 
GERMAN  LITERATURE,  for  Schools.  By  Vivian 
Phillipps,  B.A.,  Assistant  Master  at  Fettes  College,  Edinburgh. 
2nd  Edition,  revised.  Pott  8vo,  cloth,  is. 

ROGET  (F.  F.).  AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  OLD 
FRENCH.  History,  Grammar,  Chrestomathy,  and  Glossary. 
2nd  Edition.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  6s. 

FIRST  STEPS  IN  FRENCH  HISTORY,  LITERA- 
TURE, AND  PHILOLOGY.  For  Candidates  for  the  Scotch 
Leaving  Certificate  Examinations,  the  various  Universities  Local 
Examinations,  and  the  Army  Examinations.  4th  Edition.  Crown 
8vo,  cloth.  55. 

ROSING  (S.).     ENGLISH-DANISH    DICTIONARY.     New 

Edition.     Large  8vo,  strongly  bound,  half-roan,     us.  6d. 

SCHILLER  (F.  VON).  ANNOTATED  TEXTS.  See  Educa- 
tional Catalogue. 

SULLIVAN  (W.  K.).  CELTIC  STUDIES  FROM  THE 
GERMAN  OF  EBEL.  With  an  Introduction  on  the  Roots, 
Stems,  and  Derivatives,  and  on  Case-endings  of  Nouns  in  the 
Indo-European  Languages.  8vo,  cloth,  los. 

VELASQUEZ.        LARGER     SPANISH     DICTIONARY. 

Composed  from  the  Dictionaries  of  the  Spanish  Academy,  Terreros 
and  Salva.  Spanish-English  and  English-Spanish.  1279  pp., 
triple  columns.  2  vols.  in  I.  Imp.  8vo,  cloth.  24*. 

VIGA  GLUMS  SAGA.  Translated  from  the  Icelandic,  with  Notes 
and  an  Introduction,  by  Sir  Edmund  Head,  Bart.  Fcap.  8vo, 

cloth.     5*. 

WEISSE  (T.  H.).  ELEMENTS  OF  GERMAN.  With  a 
Course  of  Exercises  instructing  in  Simpler  Composition.  Crown 
8vo,  cloth.  35. 


14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


42  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 

WEISSE  (T.  H.).  SYSTEMATIC  CONVERSATIONAL 
EXERCISES  FOR  TRANSLATING  INTO  GERMAN, 
adapted  to  his  Grammar.  New  Edition.  Crown  8vo,  cloth. 
(Key,  5^.  net.)  3*.  6d. 

A  SHORT  GUIDE  TO  GERMAN  IDIOMS:  being  a 

Collection  of  the  Idioms  most  in  use.      With  Examination 
Papers.    3rd  Edition.     Cloth.     2s. 

WERNER'S  ELEMENTARY  LESSONS  IN  CAPE 
DUTCH  (AFRIKANDER  TAAL).  By  A.  Werner  and 
G.  Hunt.  161110,  cloth,  is.  6d, 

"  We  most  cordially  recommend  this  book  to  anyone  going  out  to  settle  in 
South  Africa.  .  .  .  The  dialogues  and  exercises  are  admirably  planned." — 
Reformer. 

"To  those  outward  bound  such  a  book  is  sure  to  be  useful." — Practical 
Teacher. 

WILLIAMS  (The  Right  Rev.  W.  L.,  D.C.L.).  A  DICTION- 
ARY OF  THE  NEW  ZEALAND  LANGUAGE.  4th 

Edition.     Edited  by  the  Right  Rev.  Bishop  W.  L.  Williams,  with 
numerous  additions  and  corrections.     Demy  8vo,  cloth.     125.  6d. 

LESSONS   IN   MAORI.     3rd  Edition.     Fcap.   8vo,   cloth. 

y- 

YELLOW  BOOK  OF  LECAN.  A  Collection  of  Pieces  (Prose 
and  Verse)  in  the  Irish  Language,  in  part  compiled  at  the  end  of 
the  Fourteenth  Century  ;  now  for  the  first  time  published  from  the 
original  Manuscript  in  the  Library  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  by 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy.  With  Introduction,  Analysis  of  Con- 
tents, and  Index,  by  Robert  Atkinson.  30  and  468  pp.  (Royal 
Irish  Academy's  Irish  facsimiles.)  Large  post  folio,  1896,  half- 
roan,  Roxburghe,  cloth  sides.  £4,  45. 

ZOEGA  (G.  T.).  ENGLISH-ICELANDIC  DICTIONARY. 
8vo,  cloth.  6s.  net. 

ZOMPOLIDES  (Dr.  D.).  A  COURSE  OF  MODERN 
GREEK ;  or,  The  Greek  Language  of  the  Present  Day. 
I.  The  Elementary  Method.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  5^. 


14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W,C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  43 

V.   Science. 

MEDICINE— CHEMISTRY— BOTANY— ZOOLOGY- 
MATHEMATICS. 

BASTIAN  (H.  CHARLTON,  M.A.,  M.D.,  F.R.S.). 
STUDIES  IN  HETEROGENESIS.  With  825  Illustra- 
tions from  Photomicrographs.  Royal  8vo,  cloth.  $is.  6d. 

BENEDICT  (F.  E.,  Ph.D.).  ELEMENTARY  ORGANIC 
ANALYSIS.  Small  8vo.  Pages  vi  +  82.  15  Illustrations. 
4J.  6d.  net. 

BERGEY  (D.  G.).  HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICAL  HY- 
GIENE. Small  8vo.  Pages  ¥+164.  6s.  6et.  net. 

BILTZ  (HENRY).  THE  PRACTICAL  METHODS  OF 
DETERMINING  MOLECULAR  WEIGHTS.  Trans- 
lated by  Jones.  Small  8vo.  Pages  viii  +  245.  44  Illustrations. 
Ss.  6d.  net. 

BOLTON.      HISTORY     OF     THE     THERMOMETER. 

I2mo.     96  pages.     6  Illustrations.     45.  6d.  net. 

BRUCE  (ALEX.,  M.A.,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.E.,  F.R.S.E.).  A 
TOPOGRAPHICAL  ATLAS  OF  THE  SPINAL  CORD. 

Fcap.  folio,  half-leather.     £2,  2s.  net. 

COLBY  (ALBERT  LADD).  REINFORCED  CONCRETE 
.IN  EUROPE.  Demy  8vo,  cloth.  145.  6d.  net. 

CREIGHTON  (CHAS.,  M.DA  CANCER  AND  OTHER 
TUMOURS  OF  THE  BREAST.  Researches  showing 
their  true  seat  and  cause.  With  24  Lithographic  Plates  containing 
138  figures  from  the  Author's  drawings.  Royal  8vo,  cloth. 
12s.  6d.  net 

CONTRIBUTIONS     TO     THE     PHYSIOLOGICAL 

THEORY  OF  TUBERCULOSIS.  By  Charles  Creighton, 
M.D.,  sometime  Demonstrator  of  Anatomy,  Cambridge  Medical 
School,  author  of  "  Bovine  Tuberculosis  in  Man,"  etc.  Royal  8vo, 
cloth.  12s.  6d.  net. 

CUNNINGHAM  MEMOIRS— 

1.  Cubic  Transformations.     By  John  Casey,  LL.D.     410, 
sewed.     2s.  6d. 

2.  On   the  Lumbar  Curve  in   Man  and  the  Apes.     By 
D.  J.  Cunningham,  M.D.     13  Plates.     410,  sewed.     $s. 

3.  New  Researches  on  Sun-heat,  Terrestrial  Radiation, 
etc.      By  Rev.  Samuel  Haughton,   M.A.,  M.D.     9  Plates.     4to, 
sewed,     is.  6d. 

4.  Dynamics  and  Modern  Geometry.     A  New  Chapter  in 
the  Theory  of  Screws.      By  Sir   Robert   S.    Ball,  LL.D.      4to, 
sewed.     2... 


14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


CUNNINGHAM  MEMOIRS-  Continued. 

5.  The    Red    Stars.      Observations    and    Catalogue.      New 
Edition.     Edited  by  Rev.  T.  Espin,  M.A.    410,  sewed.     y.  6d. 

6.  On  the  Morphology  of  the  Duck  Tribe  and  the  Auk 
Tribe.    By  W.  K.  Parker,  F.R.S.    9  Plates.    410,  sewed.     y.  6d. 

7.  Contribution  to  the  Surface  Anatomy  of  the  Cerebral 
Hemispheres.     By  D.  J.  Cunningham,  M.D.     With  a  Chapter 
upon   Cranio-Cerebral    Topography    by    Victor   Horsley,    M.B., 
F.R.S.     4to,  sewed.     8.r.  6d. 

8.  On  the  Flinders  Petrie  Papyri.     Part  I.     Out  of  Print. 

9.  On  the  Flinders  Petrie  Papyri.     Part  II.    With  18  Auto- 
types.    4to,  sewed.     42^.  net.     Appendix  to  8  and  9.     5-r.  net. 

10.  The  Decorative  Art  of  British  New  Guinea.    A  Study 
in  Papuan  Ethnography.     By  Alfred  C.    Haddon,   M.A.     With 
12  Plates,  and  numerous  other  Illustrations.    4to,  sewed.    14^.  net. 

n.  On  the  Flinders  Petrie  Papyri.  With  Transcriptions, 
Commentaries,  and  Index.  By  John  P.  Mahaffy,  D.  D. ,  and  Prof. 
J.  Gilbert  Smyly.  With  7  Autotypes.  4to,  sewed.  42^.  net. 

EMERY  (F.  B.,  M.A.).      ELEMENTARY  CHEMISTRY. 

With  numerous  Illustrations.     8j.  6d.  net 

ENGELHARDT  (V.).  THE  ELECTROLYSIS  OF 
WATER.  8vo.  Pages  x+ 140.  90  Illustrations.  5J.net. 

FISCHER  (Prof.  EMIL,  of  Berlin  University).  INTRO- 
DUCTION TO  THE  PREPARATION  OF  ORGANIC 
COMPOUNDS.  Translated  with  the  author's  sanction  from 
the  new  German  edition  by  R.  V.  Stanford,  B.Sc.,  Ph.D.  With 
figures  in  the  text.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  4^.  net. 

HANTZSCH  (A.).  ELEMENTS  OF  STEREOCHEM- 
ISTRY. Translated  by  Wolf.  I2mo.  Pages  viii  +  2o6.  26 
Figures.  6s.  6d.  net. 

HARDY.  ELEMENTS  OF  ANALYTICAL  GEOMETRY. 

8vo.     Pages  iv  + 365.     163  Figures.     8.r.  6d.  net. 

INFINITESIMALS   AND    LIMITS.     Sm.  i2mo,  paper. 

22  pp.     6  Figures,     is.  net. 

HARNACK  (AXEL).  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  ELE- 
MENTS OF  THE  DIFFERENTIAL  AND  INTEGRAL 
CALCULUS.  From  the  German.  Royal  8vo,  cloth,  los.  6d. 

HART  (EDWARD,  Ph.D.).  CHEMISTRY  FOR  BE- 
GINNERS. Small  I2mo. 

Vol.  I.  Inorganic.     Pages  viii  +  i88.     55  Illustrations  and  2 

Plates.     Fourth  Edition.     4*.  6d.  net. 

VoL  II.  Organic.     Pages  iv  +  98.     n  Illustrations.     2s.  net. 
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VI.   Miscellaneous. 

ANTHROPOLOGY— SOCIOLOGY— MYTHOLOGY- 
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AVEBURY  (Lord,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  etc.)  (Sir  John  Lubbock). 
PREHISTORIC  TIMES,  as  Illustrated  by  Ancient  Re- 
mains and  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  Modern  Savages. 

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41  To  anyone  who  wishes  to  obtain  a  succinct  conspectus  of  the  present  state 
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BLACKBURN    (HELEN).     WOMEN'S    SUFFRAGE.     A 

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INDEX  UNDER  AUTHORS  &  TITLES 


Abhidhanaratnamala.     Aufrecht,  33. 
Acland,  Sir  C.  T.  D.    Anglican  Liberalism, 

12. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles.     Adolf  Harnack,  12. 

Addis,  W.  K.     Hebrew  Religion,  n. 

jEneidea.    James  Henry,  52. 

Agricultural  Chemical  Analysis.     Wiley,  50. 

Alcyonium.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 

Allin,  Rev.  Thos.     Universalism  Asserted,  14. 

Alton,  E.  H.     Romans,  32. 

Alviella,   Count   Goblet    D'.      Contemporary 

Evolution  of  Religious  Thought,  14. 
Alviella,  Count  Goblet  D'.     Idea  of  God,  13. 
Americans,  The.    Hugo  Munsterberg,  29. 
Analysis  of  Ores.     F.  C.  Phillips,  48. 
Analysis  of  Theology.     E.  G.  Figg   17. 
Ancient  Assyria,  Religion  of.    Sayce,  14. 
Ancient  Egyptians,  32. 
Ancient  World,  Wall  Maps  of  the,  53. 
Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 
Annotated  Texts.    Goethe,  30. 
Antedon.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 
Anthems.     Rev.  R.  Crompton  Jones,  20. 
Antiqua  Mater.     Edwin  Johnson,  20. 
Anurida.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 
Apocalypse.     Bleek,  7, 
Apocalypse  of  St  John,  37. 
Apologetic  of  the  New  Test.     E.  F.  Scott,  12. 
Apostle  Paul,  the,  Lectures  on.     Pfleiderer,  13. 
Apostolic  Age,  The.     Carl  von  Weizsacker,  6. 
Arabian  Poetry,  Ancient,  34. 
Arenicoln.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 
Argument  of  Adaptation.  Rev.  G.  Henslow,  18. 
Aristotelian  Society,  Proceedings  of,  29. 
Army  Series  of  French  and  German  Novels,  38. 
Ascidia.     Johnstone,  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 
Ashworth,  J.  H.     Arenicola,  46. 
Assyrian  Dictionary.     Norris,  35. 
Assyrian  Language,  A  Concise  Dictionary  of. 

W.  Muss-Arnolt,  35. 

Assyriology,  Essay  on.     George  Evans,  34. 
Astigmatic  Letters.     Dr.  Pray,  48. 
Alhanasius  of  Alexandria,  Canons  of,  37. 
Atlas  Antiquus,  Kiepert's,  53. 
Atonement,  Doctrine  of  the.     Sabatier,  10. 
At-one-ment,  The.     Rev.  G.  Henslow,  18. 
Aufrecht,  Dr.  T.     Abhidhanaratnamala,  33. 
Auf  Verlornem  Posten.     Dewall,  38. 
Autobiography.     Herbert  Spencer,  30. 
Avebury,  Lord.     Prehistoric  Times,  51. 
Avesti,  Pahlavi.     Persian  Studies,  33. 

Babel  and  Bible.     Friedrich  Delitzsch,  9. 
Bacon,  Roger,  The  "Opus  Majus"  of,  28. 
Bad  Air  and  Bad  Health.    Herbert  and  Wager, 

56. 

Ball,  Sir  Roberts.     Cunningham  Memoir,  45. 
Bases  of  Religious  Belief.   C.  B.  Upton,  14,  26. 
Bastian,  H.  C.     Studies  in  Heterogenesis,  43. 
Baur.     Church  History,  7;  Paul,  7. 
Bayldon,  Rev.  G.     Icelandic  Grammar,  38. 
Beard,   Rev.   Dr.   C.      Universal   Christ,   15  ; 

Reformation  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  13. 
Beeby,  Rev.  C.  E.    Doctrine  and  Principles,  15. 
Beet,  Prof.  J.  A.    .Child  and  Religion,  10. 
Beginnings  of  Christianity.     Paul  Wernle,  4. 


Beliefs  about  the  Bible.     M.  J.  Savage,  24. 
Benedict,  F.  E.    Organic  Analysis,  43. 
Bergey,  D.  G.     Practical  Hygiene,  43. 
Bernstein  and  Kirsch.    Syriac  Chrestomathy, 

Bevan,  Rev.  J.  O.  Genesis  and  Evolution  of 
the  Individual  Soul,  15. 

Bible.    Translated  by  Samuel  Sharpe,  15. 

Bible,  Beliefs  about,  Savage,  24  ;  Bible  Plants, 
Henslow,  18  ;  Bible  Problems,  Prof.  T.  K. 
Cheyne,  9  ;  How  to  Teach  the,  Rev.  A.  F. 
Mitchell,  22 ;  Remnants  of  Later  Syriac 
Versions  of,  37. 

Biblical  Hebrew,  Introduction  to.  Rev.  Jas. 
Kennedy,  20,  34. 

Biltz,  Henry.  Methods  of  Determining  Mole- 
cular Weights,  43. 

Biology,  Principles  of.     Herbert  Spencer,  30. 

Blackburn,  Helen.     Women's  Suffrage,  51. 

Bleek.    Apocalypse,  7. 

Boielle,  Jas.  French  Composition,  39  ;  Hugo, 
Les  Miserables,  39 ;  Notre  Dame,  39. 

Bolton.    History  of  the  Thermometer,  43. 

Book  of  Prayer.     Crompton  Jones,  20. 

Books  of  the  New  Testament.    Von  Soden,  10. 

Bousset,  Wilhelm.    Jesus,  10. 

Bremond,  Henri.     Mystery  of  Newman,  15. 

Brewster,  H.  B.  The  Prison,  28;  The  Statu- 
ette and  the  Background,  28  ;  Anarchy  and 
Law,  28. 

British  Fisheries.    J.  Johnstone,  45. 

Bruce,  Alex.  Topographical  Atlas  of  the 
Spinal  Cord,  43. 

Buddha.     Prof.  H.  Oldenberg,  35. 

Burkitt,  Prof.  F.  C.    Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 

Calculus,  Differential  and  Integral.     Harnack, 

Caldecott,  Dr.  A.    Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 
Campbell,  Rev.   Canon   Colin.      First   Three 

Gospels  in  Greek,  15. 

Campbell,  Rev.  R.  J.  New  Theology  Ser- 
mons, 15. 

Cancer.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 
Cancer  and  other  Tumours.  Chas.  Creigh  ton,43- 
Canonical  Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  3. 
Cape  Dutch.     J.  F.  Van  Oordt,  41. 
Cape  Dutch,  Werner's  Elementary  Lessons  in, 

42. 

Cardium.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 
Carlyle,  Rev.  A.  J.     Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 
Casey,  John.     Cunningham  Memoirs,  43. 
Catalogue  of  the  London  Library,  51. 
Celtic  Heathendom.     Prof.  J.  Rhys,  14. 
Celtic  Studies.     Sullivan,  41. 
Centenary    History  of  South    Place   Society. 

Moncure  D.  Conway,  16. 
Chad  wick,  Antedon,  47  ;  Echinus,  46.  _ 
Chaldee  Language,  Manual  of.     Turpie,  37. 
Channing's  Complete  Works,  15. 
Chants  and  Anthems,  20  ;  Chants,  Psalms  and 

Canticles.     Crompton  Jones,  20. 
Character  of  the  Fourth  Gospel.     Rev.  John 

James  Tayler,  as- 
Chemical  Dynamics,  Studies  in.    J.  H.  Van't 

Hoff,  45. 


TIT 


INDEX— Continued. 


Chemistry  for  Beginners.     Edward  Hart,  44. 

Cheyne,  Prof.  T.  K.     Bible  Problems,  9. 

Child  and  Religion,  The,  10. 

Chinese.    Werner,  39. 

Chondrus.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 

Christ  no  Product  of  Evolution.  Rev.  G. 
Henslow,  19. 

Christian  Creed,  Our,  15. 

Christian  Life,  Ethics  of  the,  a. 

Christian  Life  in  the  Primitive  Church.  Dob- 
schutz,  3. 

Christian  Religion,  Fundamental  Truths  of 
the.  R.  Seeberg,  12. 

Christianity,  Beginnings  of.    Wernle,  4. 

Christianity  in  Talmud  and  Midi-ash.  R. 
Travers  Herford,  19. 

Christianity?    What  is.    Adolf  Harnack,  5. 

Chromium,  Production  of.     Max  Leblanc,  46. 

Church  History.     Baur,  7.     Schubert,  3. 

Closet  Prayers.     Dr.  Sadler,  24. 

Codium.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 

Coit,  Dr.  Stanton.  Idealism  and  State  Church, 
16  ;  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  16. 

Colby,  A.  L.  Reinforced  Concrete  in 
Europe,  43. 

Cole,  Frank  J.     Pleuronectes,  46. 

Collins,  F.  H.  Epitome  of  Synthetic  Philo- 
sophy, 28. 

Coming  Church.     Dr.  John  Hunter,  20. 

Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Job.  Ewald,  7  ; 
Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Job.  Wright 
and  Hirsch,  27 ;  Commentary  on  the  Old 
Testament.  Ewald,  7  ;  Commentary  on  the 
Psalms.  Ewald,  7  ;  Protestant,  8,  23. 

Common  Prayer  for  Christian  Worship,  16. 

Communion  with  God.     Herrmann,  5,  10. 

Conductivity  of  Liquids,  49. 

Confessions  of  St.  Augustine.     Harnack,  12. 

Contemporary  Evolution  of  Religious  Thought. 
Count  Goblet  D'Alviella,  14. 

Contes  Militaires.     Daudet,  38. 

Conway,  Moncure  D.     Centenary  History,  16. 

Conybeare,  F.  C.     Apocalypse  of  St  John,  37. 

Cornill,  Carl.  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, 3. 

Cosmology  of  the   Rigveda.     H.  W.  Wallis, 

Creighton,  Chas.    Cancer  and  other  Tumours, 

43 ;  Tuberculosisj  43. 

Cuneiform  Inscriptions,  The.     Schrader,  8. 
Cunningham  Memoirs,  43,  44. 
Cunningham,  D.  J.,  M.D.     Lumbar  Curve  in 

Man  and  the  Apes,  43 ;     Surface  Anatomy 

of  the  Cerebral  Hemispheres.    Cunningham 

Memoir,  43. 
Cussans,  Margaret.    Gammarus,  46. 

Daniel  and  its  Critics;  Daniel  and  his  Pro- 
phecies. Rev.  C.  H.  H.  Wright,  27. 

Darbishire,  Otto  V.     Chondrus,  46. 

Daudet,  A.     Contes  Militaires,  38. 

Davids,  T.  W.  Rhys.     Indian  Buddhism,  13. 

Davis,  J.  R.  Ainsworth.    Patella,  46. 

Dawning  Faith.     H.  Rix,  24. 

Delbos,  Leon.  Student's  Graduated  French 
Reader,  39. 

Delbos,  L.     Nautical  Terms,  39. 


Delectus  Veterum.    Theodor  Noldeke,  35. 
Delitzsch,    Friedrich.     Babel   and    Bible,    9 ; 

Hebrew  Language,  33. 

Democracy  and  Character.  Canon  Stephen,  25 . 
Denmark  in  the  Early  Iron  Age.  C.  Engel- 

hardt,  52. 

De  Profundis  Clamavi.  Dr.  John  Hunter,  20. 
Descriptive  Sociology.  Herbert  Spencer,  32. 
Development  of  the  Periodic  Law.  Venable,  50. 
Dewall,  Johannes  v.,  Auf  Verlornem  Posten 

and  Nazzarena  Danti,  38. 
Differential  and  Integral  Calculus,  The.     Axel 

Harnack,  44. 

Dillmann,  A.    Ethiopic  Grammar,  33. 
Dipavamsa,  The.     Edited  by  Oldenberg,  33. 
Dirge  of  Coheleth.     Rev.  C.  Taylor,  25. 
Dobschutz,  Ernst  von.     Christian  Life  in  the 

Primitive  Church,  3,  16. 

Doctrine  and  Principles.   Rev.  C.  E.  Beeby,  15. 
Dogma,  History  of.     Harnack,  1 8. 
Dole,  Chas.  F.     The  Ethics  of  Progress,  16. 
Driver,  S.  R.     Mosheh  ben  Shesheth,  22. 
Drummond,  Dr.  Jas.     Character  and  Author- 
ship of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  16 ;  Philo  Judaus, 

28  ;  Via,  Veritas,  Vita,  13. 

Early  Hebrew  Story.     John  P.  Peters,  9. 
Early  Christian  Conception.     Pfleiderer,  10. 
Ecclesiastical   Institutions  of  Holland.     Rev. 

P.  H.  Wicksteed,  26. 
Echinus.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 
Echoes  of  Holy  Thoughts,  17. 
Education.      Spencer,    31  ;      Lodge,     School 

Reform,  40. 

Egyptian  Faith,  The  Old.     Naville,  12. 
Egyptian  Grammar,  Erman's,  34. 
Electric  Furnace.     H.  Moisson,  47. 
Electrolysis  of  Water.     V.  Engelhardt,  44. 
Electrolytic    Laboratories.     Nissenson,  47. 
Eledone.     Vide  L.M.B.C   Memoirs,   47. 
Elementary,  Chemistry.     Emery,  44. 
Elementary  Organic  Analysis.  F.E.  Benedict^. 
Emery,  F.  B.,  M.A.    Elementary  Chemistry, 

Engelhardt,  C.     Denmark  in  Iron  Age,  52. 
Engelhardt,  V.     Electrolysis  of  Water,  44. 
Engineering  Chemistry.     T.  B.  Stillman,  49. 
England  and  Germany.     Erich  Marcks,  54. 
English  Culture,  Rise  of.     E.  Johnson,  53. 
English -Danish  Dictionary.     S.  Rosing,  41. 
English-Icelandic  Dictionary.     Zoega,  42. 
Enoch,  Book  of.    C.  Gill,  17. 
Epitome  of  Synthetic  Philosophy.     Collins,  28. 
Erman's  Egyptian  Grammar,  34. 
Erzahlungen.     Hofer,  38. 
Espin,  Rev.  T.,  M.A.    The  Red  Stars,  44. 
Essays  on  the  Social  Gospel.      Harnack  and 

Herrmann,  n. 

Essays.     Herbert  Spencer,  31. 
Ethica.     Prof.  Simon  Laurie,  29. 
Ethical  Import  of  Darwinism.     Schurman,  29. 
Ethics,  Data  of.     Herbert  Spencer,  31. 
Ethics,  Early  Christian.     Prof.  Scullard,  25. 
Ethics,  Principles  of.     Herbert  Spencer,  31. 
Ethics  of  the  Christian  Life.    Haering,  2. 
Ethics  of  Progress,  The.     Dole,  16. 
Ethiopic  Grammar.    A.  Dillmann,  33. 


INDEX— Continued. 


59 


Eucken,  Prof.     Life  of  the  Spirit,  12. 
Eugene's  Grammar  of  French  Language,  39. 
Evans,  George.    Essay  on  Assyriology,  34. 
Evolution,  A  New  Aspect  of.     Formby,  17. 
Evolution,  Christ  no  Product  of,  19. 
Evolution  of  Christianity.     C.  Gill,  17. 
Evolution  of  Knowledge.    R.  S.  Pen-in,  22. 
Evolution  of  Religion,  The.    L.  R.  Farnell,  10. 
Ewald.     Commentary  on  Job,  7  ;  Commentary 

on  the  Old  Testament,  7 ;  Commentary  on 

the  Psalms,  7. 

Facts  and  Comments.     Herbert  Spencer,  31. 

Faith  and  Morals.    W.  Herrmann,  9. 

Faizullah-Bhai,  Shaikh,  B.D.  A  Moslem 
Present;  Pre-Islamitic  Arabic  Poetry,  34. 

Farnell,  L.  R.    The  Evolution  of  Religion,  10. 

Fertilizers.  Vide  Wiley's  Agricultural  Analysis, 
50. 

Figg,  E.  G.    Analysis  of  Theology,  17. 

First  Principles.     Herbert  Spencer,  30. 

First  Three  Gospels  in  Greek.  Rev.  Canon 
Colin  Campbell,  15. 

Fischer,  Prof.  Emil.  Introduction  to  the  Pre- 
paration of  Organic  Compounds,  44. 

Flinders  Petrie  Papyri.   Cunn.  Memoirs,  44. 

Formby,  Rev.  C.  W.     Re-Creation,  17. 

Four  Gospels  as  Historical  Records,  17. 

Fourth  Gospel,  Character  and  Authorship  of,  16. 

Frankfurter,  Dr.  O.     Handbook  of  Pali,  34. 

Free  Catholic  Church.    Rev.  J.  M.  Thomas,  26. 

Freezing  Point,  The,     Jones,  45. 

French  Composition.     Jas.  Boielle,  39. 

French  History,  First  Stepsin.  F.  F.  Roget,  41. 

French  Language,  Grammar  of.     Eugene,  39. 

Fuerst,  Dr.  Jul.  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexi- 
con, 34. 

Gammarus.     Vide  L.M. B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 

Gardner,  Prof.  Percy.  Anglican  Liberalism,  12 ; 
Modernity  and  the  Churches, 

General  Language  of  the  Incas  of  Peru,  40. 

Genesis,  Book  of,  in  Hebrew  Text.  Rev.  C. 
H.  H.  Wright,  27. 

Genesis,  Hebrew  Text,  34. 

Geometry,  Analytical,  Elements  of.   Hardy,  44. 

German  Idioms,  Short  Guide  to.     Weiss,  42. 

German  Literature,  A  Short  Sketch  of.  V. 
Phillipps,  B.A.,  41. 

German,  Systematic  Conversational  Exercises 
in.  T.  H.  Weiss,  42. 

Gibson,  R.  J.  Harvey.     Codium,  46. 

Gill,  C.  Book  of  Enoch  ;  Evolution  of  Chris- 
tianity, 17. 

Glimpses  of  Tennyson.     A.  G.  Weld,  55. 

Goethe,  W.  v.     Annotated  Texts,  39. 

Goldammer,  H.     The  Kindergarten,  52. 

Goligher,  Dr  W.  A.  Hellenic  Studies,  and 
Hellenistic  Greeks,  Romans,  32. 

Gospel  of  Rightness.     C.  E.  Woods,  27. 

Gospels  in  Greek,  First  Three,  15. 

Greek  Ideas,  Lectures  on.    Re»f.  Dr.  Hatch,  13. 

Greek,  Modern,  A  Course  of.     Zompolides,  42. 

Greek  New  Testament,  6. 

Green,  Rev.  A.  A.    Child  and  Religion,  to. 

Grieben's  English  Guides,  52. 


Gulistan,  The  (Rose  Garden)  of  Shaik  Sadi  ol 

Shiraz,  36. 
Gwynn,  John.      Later  Syriac  Versions  of  the 

Bible,  37. 
Gymnastics,  Medical  Indoor.    Dr.  Schreber,  48. 

Haddon,  A.  C.  Decorative  Art  of  British 
Guinea,  Cunningham  Memoir,  44. 

Haering,  T.     Ethics  of  the  Christian  Life,  2. 

Hagmann,  J.  G.,  Ph.D.  Reform  in  Primary 
Education,  39. 

Handley,  Rev.  H.     Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 

Hantzsch,  A.    Elements  of  Stereochemistry,  44. 

Hardy.  Elements  of  Analytical  Geometry,  44  ; 
Infinitesimals  and  Limits,  44. 

Harnack,  Adolf.  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  12  ; 
History  of  Dogma,  4 ;  Letter  to  the  "  Preus- 
sische  Jahrbucher,"  18  ;  Luke  the  Physician, 
ii ;  Mission  and  Expansion  of  Christianity, 
3;  Monasticism,  12  ;  The  Sayings  of  Jesus, 
12  ;  What  is  Christianity?  5,  9. 

Harnack,  Adolf,  and  Herrmann,  W.  Essays 
on  the  Social  Gospel,  n. 

Harnack  and  his  Oxford  Critics.    Saunders,  24. 

Harnack,  Axel.  Differential  and  Integral 
Calculus,  44. 

Hart,  Edward,  Ph.D.  Chemistry  for  Begin- 
ners, 44  ;  Second  Year  Chemistry,  44. 

Hatch,  Rev.  Dr.     Lectures  on   Greek  Ideas, 

13- 
Haughton,  Rev.  Samuel,  M.A.,  M.D.     New 

Researches  on  Sun-Heat,  43. 
Hausrath.    History  of  the  New  Test.  Times,  7. 
Hebrew  and  Chaldee   Lexicon.      Dr.   Fuerst, 

Hebrew  Language,  The.     F.  Delit/sch,  33. 

Hebrew,  New  School  of  Poets,  35. 

Hebrew  Religion.    W.  E.  Addis,  n. 

Hebrew  Story.     Peters,  9. 

Hebrew  Texts,  18. 

Hellenic  Studies,  32. 

Hellenistic  Greeks.    Mahafiy  and  Goligher,  32. 

Henry,  Jas.     ./Eneidea,  52. 

Henslow,  Rev.  G.  The  Argument  of  Adapta- 
tion, 18;  The  At-pne-ment,  18  ;  Christ  no 
Product  of  Evolution,  IQ  ;  Spiritual  Teach- 
ings of  Bible  Plants,  18;  Spiritual  Teaching 
of  Christ's  Life,  19;  The  Vulgate,  10. 

Henson,  Rev.  Canon  Hensley.  Child  and 
Religion.  10. 

Herbert,  Hon.  A.     Sacrifice  of  Education,  52. 

Herbert,  Hon.  A.,  and  Wager,  H.  Bad  Air 
and  Bad  Health,  52. 

Herdman,  Prof.  W.  A.     Ascidia,  46. 

Herford,  R.  Travers,  B.A.  Christianity  in 
Talmud  and  Midrash,  19. 

Herrmann,  W.  Communion,  5,  10;  Faith  and 
Morals,  9. 

Herrmann  and  Harnack.  Essays  on  the  Social 
Gospel,  n. 

Heterogenesis,  Studies  In.     H.  Bastian,  43. 

Hewitt,  C.  Gordon.     Ligia,  46. 

Hibbert  Journal  Supplement  for  1909, entitled  : 

Jesus  or  Christ?  19. 
Hibbert  Journal,  The,  19. 
Hibbert,  Lectures,  The,  13,  14- 
Hickson,  Sydney  J.     Alcyonium,  46. 


6o 


INDEX— Continued. 


Hill,  Rev.  Dr.  G.    Child  and  Religion,  10. 
Hindu  Chemistry.     Prof.  P.  C.  Ray,  48. 
Hirsch,  Dr.   S.   A.,  and  W.    Aldis    Wright, 

edited  by.  Commentary  on  Job,  27. 
History  of  the  Church.  Hans  von  Schubert,  3. 
History  of  Dogma.  Adolf  Harnack,  4. 
History  of  Jesus  of  Nazara.  Keim,  7. 
History  of  the  Hebrews.  R.  Kittel,  5. 
Historyof  the  Literature  of  theO.T.  Kautzsch, 

20. 

History  of  the  New  Test.  Times.    Hausrath,  7. 
Hodgson,  S.  H.     Philosophy  and  Experience, 

28  ;  Reorganisation  of  Philosophy,  28. 
Hoerning,  Dr.  R.     The  Karaite  MSS.,  19. 
H6fer,  E.     Erzahlungen,  38. 
Hoff,  J.  H.  Van't.     Chemical  Dynamics,  45. 
Hornell,  J.     Marine  Zoology  of  Okhamandal, 

Horner,  G.     Statutes,  The,  of  the  Apostles, 

36. 
Horse,Life-Size Modelsof.  J.T.Share  Joneses; 

the,  Surgical  Anatomy  of,  45. 
Horton,  Dr.  R.     Child  and  Religion,  10. 
Howe,  J.  L.     Inorganic  Chemistry,  45. 
How  to  Teach  the  Bible.    Mitchell,  22. 
Hugo,   Victor.      Les  Miserables,    39 ;     Notre 

Dame,  39. 
Hunter,  Dr.  John.  De  Profundis  Clamavi,  20 ; 

The  Coming  Church,  20. 
Hygiene,  Handbook  of.     Bergey,  43. 
Hymns  of  Duty  and  Faith.    Jones,  20. 

Icelandic  Grammar.     Rev.  G.  Bayldon,  38. 
Idea  of  God.     Alviella,  Count  Goblet  D*,  13. 
Imms,  A.  D.     Anurida,  46. 
Incarnate  Purpose,  The.     Percival,  22. 
Indian  Buddhism.     Rhys  Davids,  13. 
Individual   Soul,  Genesis    and  Evolution  of. 

Bevan,  15. 
Individualism  and  Collectivism.    Dr.    C.  W. 

Saleeby,  29. 

Indoor  Gymnastics,  Medical,  48. 
Industrial  Remuneration,  Methods  of.     D.  F. 

Schloss,  54. 

Infinitesimals  and  Limits.     Hardy,  44. 
Inflammation  Idea.     W.  H.  Ransom,  48. 
Influence  of  Rome  on  Christianity.   Renan,  13. 
Inorganic  Chemistry.     J.  L.  Howe,  45. 
Inorganic     Qualitative     Chemical     Analysis. 

Leavenworth,  46. 

Introduction  to  the  Greek  New  Test.  Nestle,  6. 
Introduction  to  the  Old  Test.     Cornill,  3. 
Introduction   to  the   Preparation   of  Organic 

Compounds.     Fischer,  44. 
Isaiah,  Hebrew  Text,  34. 

Jeremias,  Prof.  A.    Old  Testament  in  the  Light 

of  the  East,  2. 
Jesus  of  Nazara.     Keim,  7. 
Jesus  or  Christ  ?    The  Hibbert  Journal  Supple- 
ment for  1909,  19. 
Sesus.    Wilhelm  Bousset,  10. 
esus,  Sayings  of.     Harnack,  12. 
ob,  Book  of.    G.  H.  Bateson  Wright,  27. 
ob,  Book  of.    Rabbinic  Commentary  on,  37. 
ob.     Hebrew  Text,  34. 


Johnson,  Edwin,  M.A.     Antiqua  Mater,  20; 

English  Culture,  20 ;  Rise  of  Christendom,  20. 
Johnstone,  J.     British  Fisheries,  45. 
Jones,  Prof.  Henry.     Child  and  Religion,  10. 
Jones,  Rev.  J.  C.     Child  and  Religion,  10. 
Jones,  Rev.  R.  Crompton.     Hymns  of  Duty 

and  Faith,  20 ;  Chants,  Psalms  and  Canticles, 

20 ;  Anthems,  20 ;  The  Chants  and  Anthems, 

20  ;  A  Book  of  Prayer,  20. 
Jones,  J.  T.  Share.     Life-Size  Models  of  the 

Horse,  45  ;  Surgical  Anatomy  of  the  Horse, 

45- 

iones.    The  Freezing  Point,  45. 
ordan,  H.  R.     Blaise  Pascal,  28. 
ournal  of  the  Federated  Malay  States,  56. 
ournal  of  the  Linnean  Society.     Botany  and 
Zoology,  45,  56. 
Journal  of  the  Quekett  Microscopical  Club, 

45.  So- 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Microscopical  Society, 

45.  56. 
Justice.     Herbert  Spencer,  31. 

Kantian  Ethics.     J.  G.  Schurman,  29. 

Karaite  MSS.     Dr.  R.  Hoerning,  19. 

Kautzsch,  E.  History  of  the  Literature  of  the 
Old  Testament,  20. 

Kea,  the.     G.  R.  Marriner,  47. 

Keim.     History  of  Jesus  of  Nazara,  7. 

Kennedy,  Rev.  Jas.  Introduction  to  Biblical 
Hebrew,  34;  Hebrew  Synonyms,  34. 

Kiepert's  New  Atlas  Antiquus,  53. 

Kiepert's  Wall-Maps  of  the  Ancient  World,  53. 

Kindergarten,  The.     H.  Goldammer,  52. 

Kittel,  R.     History  of  the  Hebrews,  5. 

Knight,  edited  by.     Essays  on  Spinoza,  32. 

Knowledge,  Evolution  of.     Perrin,  22. 

Kuenen,  Dr.  A.  National  Religions  and  Uni- 
versal Religion,  13  ;  Religion  of  Israel,  8. 

Kyriakides,  A.  Modern  Greek-English  Dic- 
tionary, 39. 

Laboratory  Experiments.     Noyes  and  Mulli- 

ken,  47. 

Ladd,  Prof.  G.  T.     Child  and  Religion,  10. 
Lake,  Kirsopp.     Resurrection,  n. 
Landolt,  Hans.    Optical  Rotating  Power,  46. 
Laurie,    Prof.    Simon.      Ethica,    29 ;     Meta- 

physica  Nova  et  Vetusta,  29. 
Lea,  Henry  Chas.     Sacerdotal  Celibacy,  21. 
Leabhar  Breac,  40. 
Leabhar  Na  H-Uidhri,  40. 
Leavenworth,   Prof.  W.  S.     Inorganic  Quali- 
tative Chemical  Analysis,  46. 
Leblanc,     Dr.     Max.       The     Production     of 

Chromium,  46. 

Le  Coup  de  Pistolet.     Merimee,  38. 
Lepeophtheirus  and  Lernea.     Vide  L.M.B.C. 

Memoirs,  46. 
Letter    to     the     "  Preussische    Jahrbucher." 

Adolf  Harnack,  18. 
Lettsom,  W.  N.,  trans,  by.     Nibelungenlied, 

40. 

Liberal  Christianity.    Jean  Reville,  9. 
Life  and  Matter.     Sir  O.  Lodge,  2r. 
Life  of  the  Spirit,  The.     Eucken,  12. 


INDEX— Continued. 


61 


Ljlja.     Edited  by  E.  Magnusson,  40. 
Lilley,  Rev.  A.  L.     Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 
Lineus.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 
Ljnnean  Society  of  London,  Journals  of,  56. 
Liverpool  Marine  Biology  Committee  Memoirs, 

I.— XIX.,  46,  47. 

Lobstein,  Paul.     Virgin  Birth  of  Christ,  9. 
Lodge,  Sir  O.     Life  and  Matter,  21 ;  School 

Teaching  and  School  Reform,  40. 
Logarithmic  Tables.    Sang,  48  ;    Schroen,  48. 
London  Library,  Catalogue  of,  51. 
London  Library  Subject  Index,  54. 
Long,  J.  H.     A  Text-book  of  Urine  Analysis, 

Luke  the  Physician.     Adolf  Harnack,  u. 
Lyall,  C.  J.,  M.A.     Ancient  Arabian  Poetry, 
34- 

Macan,  R.  W.  The  Resurrection  of  Jesus 
Christ,  21. 

MacColl,  Hugh.  Man's  Origin,  Destiny,  and 
Duty,  29. 

Macfie,  R.  C.  Science,  Matter,  and  Immor- 
tality, 21. 

Machberoth  Ithiel.     Thos.  Chenery,  35. 

Mackay,  R.  W.  Rise  and  Progress  of  Chris- 
tianity, 21. 

Magnusson,  edited  by.     Lilja,  40. 

Mahabharata,  Index  to.     S.  Sorensen,  36. 

Mahaffy,  J.  P.,  D.D.  Flinders  Petrie  Papyri. 
Cunningham  Memoirs,  44  ;  Hellenic  Studies, 
32. 

Man  and  the  Bible.    J.  A.  Picton,  23. 

Man  s  Origin,  Destiny,  and  Duty.  MacColl, 
29. 

Man  versus  the  State.     Herbert  Spencer,  31. 

Maori,  Lessons  in.  Right  Rev.  W.  L. 
Williams,  42. 

Maori,  New  and  Complete  Manual  of,  40. 

Marchant,  James.  Theories  of  the  Resurrec- 
tion, 21. 

Marcks,  Erich.     England  and  Germany,  54. 

Marine  Zoology  of  Okhamandal,  45. 

Markham,  Sir  Clements,  K.C.  B.  Vocabularies 
of  the  Incas  of  Peru,  40. 

Marriner,  G.  R.    The  Kea,  47. 

Martineau,  Rev.  Dr.  James.  Modern 
Materialism,  21  ;  Relation  between  Ethics 
and  Religion,  21. 

Mason,  Prof.  W.  P.  Notes  on  Qualitative 
Analysis,  47. 

Massoretic  Text.     Rev.  Dr.  J.  Taylor,  26. 

Masterman,  C.  F.  G.  Child  and  Religion, 
10. 

Meade,  R.  K.,  Portland  Cement,  47. 

Mediaeval  Thought,  History  of.  R.  Lane 
Poole,  23. 

M4n6goz,  E.     Religion  and  Theology,  21. 

Mercer,  Right  Rev.  J.  Edward,  D.D.  Soul 
of  Progress,  21. 

Merimie,  Prosper.  Le  Coup  de  Pistolet, 
38. 

Metallic    Objects,    Production    of.      Dr.    W. 


Pfanhauser,  47. 
Metallurgy.     Wysor,  50. 


rgy 

Metaphysica  Nova  et   Vetusta.     Prof.  Simon 
Laurie,  29. 


Midrash,  Christianity  in.     Herford,  19. 
Milanda     Panho,      The.      Edited     by     V. 

Trenckner.  35. 
Mission  and  Expansion  of  Christianity.    Adolf 

Harnack,  3. 
Mitchell,   Rev.   A.    F.      How  to  Teach  the 

Bible,  22. 
Mitchell,  Rev.   C.   W.     Refutation  of  Mani, 

Marcion,  etc.,  37. 
Modern  Greek  •  English  Dictionary.     Kyria- 

kides,  39. 
Modernity  and  the  Churches.     Percy  Gardner, 

12. 
Modern      Materialism.      Rev.      Dr.     James 

Martineau,  21. 

Moisson,  Henri.     Electric  Furnace,  47. 
Molecular  Weights,  Methods  of  Determining. 

Henry  Biltz,  43. 

Monasticism.     Adolf  Harnack,  12. 
Montefiore,   C.   G.     Religion  of  the  Ancient 

Hebrews,  13. 
Moorhouse  Lectures.     Vide  Mercer's  Soul  of 

Progress,     21 ;     Stephen,   Democracy    and 

Character,  25. 

Morrison,  Dr.  W.  D.    Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 
Mosheh  ben  Shesheth.     S.  R.  Driver.    Edited 

by,  22. 
Moslem    Present.      Faizullah-Bhai,     Shaikh, 

B.D.,  34. 

Munsterberg,  Hugo.     The  Americans,  22. 
Muss-Arnolt,   W.     A   Concise   Dictionary    of 

the  Assyrian  Language,  35. 
My  Struggle  for  Light.     R.  Wimmer,  9. 
Mystery  of  Newman.     Henri  Bremond,  15. 

National  Idealism  and  State  Church,  16 ;  and 

the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  16. 
National   Religions  and   Universal   Religion. 

Dr.  A.  Kuenen,  13. 
Native  Religions  of  Mexico  and  Peru.    Dr.  A. 

R^ville,  14. 
Naturalism  and  Religion.     Dr.  Rudolf  Otto, 

22. 

Nautical  Terms.     L.  Delbos,  39. 
Naville,  Prof.  E.     The  Old  Egyptian  Faith, 

12. 

Nestle.    Introduction  to  the  Greek  New  Test.,  6. 
New  Hebrew  School  of  Poets.     Edited  by  H. 

Brody  and  K.  Albrecht,  35. 
New  Theology  Sermons.    Rev.  R.  J.  Campbell. 

I5- 

New  Zealand  Language,  Dictionary  of.  Rt. 
Rev.  W.  L.  Williams,  42. 

Nibelungenlied.    Trans.  W.  L.  Lettsom,  40. 

Nissenson.  Arrangements  of  Electrolytic 
Laboratories,  50. 

NSldeke,  Theodor.  Delectus  Veterum,  35  ; 
Syriac  Grammar,  35. 

Norris,  E.     Assyrian  Dictionary,  35. 

Noyes,  A.  A.     Organic  Chemistry,  47. 

Noyes,  A.  A.,  and  Milliken,  Samuel.  Labora- 
tory Experiments,  47. 

O'Grady,  Standish,  H.     Silva  Gadelica,  41. 
Old  and  New  Certainty  of  the  Gospel.    Alex. 
Robinson,  24. 


62 


I N  D  EX— Continued. 


Oldenberg,  Dr.  H.,  edited  by.     Dipavamsa, 

The,  33 ;  Vinaya  Pitakam,  37. 
Old  French,  Introduction  to.    F.  F.  Roget,  41. 
Old    Testament    in    the  Light  of   the   East. 

Jeremias,  2. 

Oordt,  J.  F.  Van,  B.A.    Cape  Dutch,  41. 
Ophthalmic  Test  Types.     Snellen's,  49. 
Optical  Rotating  Power.     Hans  Landolt,  46. 
"  Opus  Majus  "  of  Roger  Bacon,  28. 
Organic  Chemistry.    A.  A.  Noyes,  47. 
OttOj  Rudolf.     Naturalism  and  Religion,  n. 
Outlines  of  Church  History.    Von  Schubert,  3. 
Outlines  of  Psychology.     Wilhelm  Wundt,  32. 

Pali,  Handbook  of.     Dr.  O.  Frankfurter,  34. 

Pali  Miscellany.     V.  Trenckner,  35. 

Parker,   W.  K.,   F.R.S.     Morphology  of  the 

Duck  Tribe  and  the  Auk  Tribe,  44. 
Pascal,  Blaise.     H.  R.  Jordan,  28. 
Patella.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoiis,  46. 
Paul.     Baur,  7  ;  Pfleiderer,  13;  Weinel,  3. 
Paulinism.     Pfleiderer,  8. 
Pearson,  Joseph.     Cancer,  47. 
Pecton.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  47. 
Peddie,  R.  A.     Printing  at  Brescia,  54. 
Percival,  G.  H.     The  Incarnate  Purpose,  22. 
Perrin,  R.  S.     Evolution  of  Knowledge,  22. 
Persian    Language,    A    Grammar  of.     J.  T. 

Plaits,  36. 

Peters,  Dr.  John  P.     Early  Hebrew  Story,  9. 
Pfanhauser,  Dr.  W.     Production  of  Metallic 

Objects,  47. 
Pfleiderer,  Otto.     Early  Christian  Conception, 

10;  Lectures  on  Apostle  Paul,  13  ;  Paulinism, 

8 ;    Philosophy  of   Religion,   8  ;    Primitive 

Christianity,  2. 

Phillips,  F.  C.     Analysis  of  Ores,  48. 
Phillipps,  V.,  B.A.     Short  Sketch  of  German 

Literature,  41. 

Philo  Judaeus.     Dr.  Drummond,  16. 
Philosophy  and  Experience.     Hodgson,  28. 
Philosophy  of  Religion.     Pfleiderer,  8. 
Picton,  J.  Allanson.     Man  and  the  Bible,  23. 
Piddington,  H.     Sailors'  Horn  Book,  48. 
Pikler,    Jul.      Psychology    of   the    Belief   in 

Objective  Existence,  29. 
Platts,   J.   T.      A  Grammar  of  the    Persian 

Language,  36. 

Pleuronectes.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 
Pocket  Flora  of  Edinburgh.    C.  O.  Sonntag, 

49- 
Polychael  Larvae.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs, 

Poole,     Reg.     Lane.     History    of    Mediaeval 

Thought,  23. 

Portland  Cement.     Meade,  47. 
Pray,  Dr.     Astigmatic  Letters,  48. 
Prayers  for  Christian  Worship.     Sadler,  24. 
Prehistoric  Times.     Lord  Avebury,  51. 
Pre-Islamitic  Arabic  Poetry.     Shaikh  Faizul- 

lah-Bhai,  B.D.,  34. 

Primitive  Christianity.     Otto  Pfleiderer,  2. 
Printing  at  Brescia.     R.  A.  Peddie,  58. 
Prison,  The.     H.  B.  Brewster,  28. 
Proceedings  of  the  Aristotelian  Society,  29. 
Proceedings  of  the  Optical  Convention,  48. 
Prolegomena.     Reville,  8. 


Protestant  Commentary  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 8,  23. 

Psalms,  Hebrew  Text,  34. 

Psychology  of  the  Belief  in  Objective  Exist- 
ence. Jul.  Pikler,  29. 

Psychology,  Principles  of,  Spencer,  30;  Out- 
lines of,  Wundt,  32. 

Punnett,  R.  C.     Lineus,  46. 

Qualitative  Analysis,  Notes  on.  Prof.  W.  P. 
Mason,  47. 

Ransom,  W.  H.  The  Inflammation  Idea,  48. 
Rashdall,  Dr.  Hastings.  Anglican  Liberalism, 

12. 

Ray,  Prof.  P.  C.     Hindu  Chemistry,  48. 
Reasons  for  Dissenting  from  the  Philosophy  of 

M.  Comte.     Herbert  Spencer,  32. 
Re-Creation.     Rev.  C.  W.  Formby,  17. 
Reform  in  Primary  Education.     J.  G.    Hag- 

mann,  39. 
Reformation  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.     Rev. 

Dr.  C.  Beard,  15. 

Refutation  of  Mani,  Marcion,  etc.,  37. 
Reinforced  Concrete  in  Europe.     Colby,  43. 
Rejoinder  to  Prof.  Weismann,  31. 
Relation  between  Ethics  and  Religion.     Rev. 

Dr.  James  Martineau,  21. 
Religion  and  Modern  Culture.     Sabatier,  10. 
Religion  and  Theology.     E.  Menegoz,  21. 
Religion  of  Ancient  Egypt-     Renouf,  14. 
Religion    of   the    Ancient   Hebrews.      C.   G. 

Montefiore,  13. 

Religion  of  Israel.     Kuenen,  8. 
Religions  of  Ancient  Babylonia  and  Assyria. 

Prof.  A.  H.  Sayce,  14. 
Religions  of  Authority  and  the  Spirit.    Auguste 

Sabatier,  3. 
Renan,  E.    Influence  of  Rome  on  Christianity, 

Renouf,  P.  L.  Religion  of  Ancient  Egypt,  14. 
Reorganisation  of  Philosophy.  Hodgson,  28. 
Resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ.  Lake,  21  ; 

R.  W.  Macan,  21  ;  Marchant,  21. 
Reville,  Dr.  A.    Native  Religions  of  Mexico 

and  Peru,  14. 
Reville.     Prolegomena,  8. 
Reville,  Jean.     Liberal  Christianity,  9. 
Rhys,  Prof.  J.     Celtic  Heathendom,  14. 
Ring  of  Pope  Xystus,  54. 
Rise  and   Progress  of   Christianity.     R.   W. 

Mackay,  21. 

Rise  of  Christendom.     Edwin  Johnson,  20. 
Rise  of  English  Culture.     Edwin  Johnson,  20. 
Rix,  Herbert.     Dawning  Faith,  24  ;  Tent  and 

Testament,  23. 
Robinson,  Alex.     Old  and  New  Certainty  of 

the  Gospel,  24  ;  Study  of  the  Saviour,  24. 
Roget,  F.  F.     First  Steps  in  French  History, 

41  ;  Introduction  to  Old  French,  41. 
Romans.     Alton  and  Goligher,  32. 
Rosing,  S.     English-Danish  Dictionary,  41. 
Royal   Astronomical    Society.     Memoirs  and 

Monthly  Notices,  56. 
Royal    Dublin    Society.       Transactions    and 

Proceedings,  49. 


INDEX— Continued. 


Royal    Irish    Academy.      Transactions    and 

Proceedings,  49. 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.     Transactions 

of,  49. 

Runes,  The.     Geo.  Stephens,  55. 
Runic    Monuments,    Old    Northern.       Geo. 

Stephens,  55. 
Ruth,  Book  of,  in  Hebrew  Text.    Rev.  C.  H. 

H.  Wright,  27. 

Sabatier,  Auguste.  Doctrine  of  the  Atone- 
ment, jo ;  Religions  of  Authority  and  the 
Spirit,  3. 

Sacerdotal  Celibacy.     Henry  Chas.  Lea,  21. 

Sacrifice  of  Education.     Hon.  A.  Herbert,  52. 

Sadi.  The  Gulistan  (Rose  Garden)  of  Shaik 
Sadi  of  Shiraz,  36. 

Sadler,  Rev.  Dr.  Closet  Prayers,  24  ;  Prayers 
for  Christian  Worship,  24. 

Sailors'  Horn  Book.     H.  Piddington,  48. 

Saleeby,  C.  W.  Individualism  and  Collec- 
tivism, 29. 

Sang's  Logarithms,  48. 

Saunders,  T.  B.     Harnack  and  his  Critics,  24. 

Savage,  M.  J.     Beliefs  about  the  Bible,  24. 

Sayce,  Prof.  A.  H.  Religion  of  Ancient 
Assyria,  14. 

Sayings  of  Jesus,  The.    Adolf  Harnack,  12. 

Schloss,  D.  F.  Methods  of  Industrial  Re- 
munerationj  54. 

School  Teaching  and  School  Reform.  Sir  O. 
Lodge,  40. 

Schrader.     The  Cuneiform  Inscriptions,  8. 

Schreber,  D.  G.  M.  Medical  Indoor  Gym- 
nastics, 48. 

Schroen,  L.     Seven-Figure  Logarithms,  481 

Schubert,  Hans  von.     History  of  the  Church,  3. 

Schurman,  J.  Gould.  Ethical  Import  of 
Darwinism,  29  ;  Kantian  Ethics,  29. 

Science,  Matter,  and  Immortality.  R.  C. 
Macfie,  21. 

Scott,  Andrew.  Lepeophtheirus  and  Lernea, 
46. 

Scott,  E.  F.     Apologetic  of  the  New  Test.,  M. 

Scripture,  Edward  W.,  Ph.D.  Studies  from 
the  Yale  Psychological  Laboratory,  30. 

Second  Year  Chemistry.     Edward  Hart,  44. 

Seeberg,  R.  Fundamental  Truths  of  the 
Christian  Religion,  12. 

Seger.     Collected  Writings,  49. 

Seven-Figure  Logarithms.     L.  Schroen,  48. 

Severus,  Patriarch  of  Antioch.     Letters  of,  25. 

Sharpe,  Samuel.     Bible,  translated  by,  15. 

Shearman,  A.  T.     Symbolic  Logic,  30. 

Shihab  AI  Din.  Futuh  Al-Habashah.  Ed. 
by  S.  Strong,  36. 

Short  History  of  the  Hebrew  Text.  T.  H. 
Weir,  26. 

Silva  Gadelica.     Standish  H.  O'Grady,  41. 

Snellen's  Ophthalmic  Test  Types,  49. 

Snyder,  Harry.     Soils  and  Fertilisers,  49. 

Social  Gospel,  Essays  on  the,  n. 

Social  Statics.     Herbert  S(>encer,  31. 

Sociology,  Principles  of.     Herbert  Spencer,  30. 

Sociology,  Study  of.     Herbert  Spencer,  31. 

Soden,  H.  von,  DO.  Books  of  the  New 
Testament,  to. 


Soils  and  Fertilisers.    Snyder,  49. 

Soils.     Vide  Wiley's  Agricultural  Analysis,  50. 

Sonntag,  C.  O.    A   Pocket    Flora   of    Edin- 

burgh,  49. 

Sorensen,  S.     Index  to  the  Mahabharata,  36. 
Soul  of  Progress.     Bishop  Mercer,  21. 
Spanish  Dictionary,  Larger.     Velasquez,  41. 
Spencer,    Herbert.     An    Autobiography,    30 ; 

A  System  of  Synthetic  Philosophy,  30 ;  De- 
scriptive Sociology,  Nos.  1-8,  31  ;  Works  by, 

30-32. 
Spinal  Cord,  Topographical  Atlas  of.     Alex. 

Bruce,  M.A.,  etc.,  43. 
Spinoza.     Edited  by  Prof.  Knight,  32. 
Spiritual  Teaching  of  Christ's  Life,  Henslow,  18. 
Statuette,  The,  and  the  Background.     H.  B. 

Brewster,  28. 
Statutes,  The,  of  the  Apostles.     G.   Homer, 

25,  36- 

Stephen,  Canon.  Democracy  and  Character,  25 . 
Stephens,  Geo.     Bugge's  Studies  on  Northern 

Mythology   Examined,   55 ;    Old    Northern 

Runic  Monuments,  55  ;  The  Runes,  55. 
Stephens,    Thos.,    B.A.,  Editor.     The   Child 

and  Religion,  10. 

Stereochemistry,  Elements  of.     Hantzsch,  44. 
Stewart,  Rev.  C.  R.  S.  Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 
Stillman,  T.  B.     Engineering  Chemistry,  49. 
Storms.     Piddington,  48. 

Strong,  S.  Arthur,  ed.  by.     Shihab  Al  Din,  36. 
Study  of  the  Saviour.     Alex.  Robinson,  24. 
Studies     on     Northern     Mythology.       Geo. 

Stephens,  55. 
Studies  from  the  Yale  Psychological  Laboratory. 

Edward  W.  Scripture,  Ph.D.,  29. 
Sullivan,  W.  K.  Celtic  Studies,  41. 
Surgical  Anatomy  of  the  Horse.  J.  T.  Share 

Jones,  45. 

Symbolic  Logic.     A.  T.  Shearman,  29. 
Synthetic    Philosophy,    Epitome  of.      F.   H. 

Collins,  32. 
Syriac  Chrestomathy.      Bernstein  and  Kirsch, 

Syriac  Grammar.     Theodor  Noldeke,  35. 
System    of   Synthetic    Philosophy.      Herbert 
Spencer,  30. 


Tayler,  Rev.  John  James.      Character  of  the 

Fourth  Gospel,  25. 

Taylor,  Rev.  C.     Dirge  of  Coheleth,  The,  25. 
Taylor,  Rev.  Dr.  J.     Massoretic  Text,  26. 
Ten  Services  and  Psalms  and  Canticles,  26. 
Ten  Services  of  Public  Prayer,  26. 
Tennant,  Rev.  F.  R.     Child  and  Religion,  10. 
Tent  and  Testament.     Herbert  Rix,  23. 
Testament,  Old.     Canonical  Books  of,  3 ;  Re- 
ligions of,   it  ;    Cuneiform  Inscriptions,  24; 

Hebrew  Text,  Weir,  26  ;  Literature,  20. 
Testament,  The  New,  Critical  Notes  on.     C. 

Tischendorf,  26,  27. 
Testament  Times,  New.    Acts  of  the  Apostles, 

12;   Apologetic  of,    ii  ;   Books  of  the,    10; 

Commentary,   Protestant,  8;  History  of,  7; 

Lukethe  Physician,  n  ;  Textual  Criticism,  6  ; 
Test  Types.      Pray,  48  ;  Snellen,  49. 
Text  and  Translation  Society,  Works  by,  37. 


INDEX— Continued. 


Theories  of  Anarchy  and  of  Law.      H.   B. 

Brewster,  28. 
Theories  of  the  Resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ. 

James  Marchant,  21. 

Thermometer,  History  of  the.     Bolton,  43. 
Thomas,    Rev.  J.   M.  L.      A   Free  Catholic 

Church,  26. 

Thornton,  Rev.  J.  J.    Child  and  Religion,  10. 
Tischendorf,  C.    The  New  Testament,  26. 
Tower,  O.  F.     Conductivity  of  Liquids,  49. 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  56. 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  56. 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Societyof  Edinburgh, 

56. 

Trenckner,  V.    Pali  Miscellany,  35. 
Turpie,  Dr.  D.  M'C.     Manual  of  the  Chaldee 

Language,  37. 

Universal  Christ.     Rev.  Dr.  C.  Beard,  15. 
Universalism  Asserted.     Rev.  Thos4.  Allin,  14. 
Upton,  Rev.  C.  B.    Bases  of  Religious  Belief,  14. 
Urine  Analysis,  A  Text-Book  of.     Long,  47. 

Vaillante,  Vincent,  38. 

Various  Fragments.     Herbert  Spencer,  31. 

Vega.     Logarithmic  Tables,  50. 

Veiled  Figure,  The,  55. 

Velasquez.     Larger  Spanish  Dictionary,  41. 

Venable,  T.  C.    Development  of  the  Periodic 

Law,  50 ;  Study  of  Atom,  50. 
Via,  Veritas,  Vita.     Dr.  Drummond,  13. 
Viga  Glums  Saga.     Sir  E.  Head,  41. 
Vjnaya  Pitakam.     Dr.  Oldenberg,  37. 
Vincent,  Jacques.     Vaillante,  38. 
Virgin  Birth  of  Christ.     Paul  Lobstein,  9. 
Vulgate,  The.     Henslow,  19. 
Vynne  and   Blackburn.      Women  under    the 

Factory  Acts,  55. 

Wallis,  H.  W.    Cosmology  of  the  Rigveda,  37. 
Was  Israel  ever  in  Egypt?    G.  H.  B.  Wright, 

27. 

Weir,  T.  H.     Short  History  of  the   Hebrew 

Text,  26. 
Weisse,  T.  H.     Elements  of  German,  41 ;  Short 


Guide  to  German  Idioms,  42  ;  Systematic 
Conversational  Exercises  in  German,  42. 

Weizsacker,  Carl  von.     The  Apostolic  Age,  6. 

Weld,  A.  G.     Glimpses  of  Tennyson,  55. 

Werner,  E.  T.  C.     Chinese,  32. 

Werner's  Elementary  Lessons  in  Cape  Dutch, 
42. 

Wernle,  Paul.     Beginnings  of  Christianity,  4. 

What  is  Christianity  ?    Adolf  Harnack,  5,  9. 

Wicksteed,  Rev.  P.  H.  Ecclesiastical  Institu- 
tions of  Holland,  26. 

Wiley,  Harvey  W.  Agricultural  Chemical 
Analysis,  50. 

Wilkinson,  Rev.  J.  R.    Anglican  Liberalism, 

Williams,  Right.  Rev.  W.  L.,  D.C.L.  Diction- 
ary of  the  New  Zealand  Language,  42. 

Williams,  Right  Rev.  W.  L.,  D.C.L.  Lessons 
in  Maori,  42. 

Wimmer,  R.     My  Struggle  for  Light,  9. 

Women  under  the  Factory  Acts.  Vynne  and 
Blackburn,  55. 

Women's  Suffrage.     Helen  Blackburn,  51. 

Woods,  C.  E.    The  Gospel  of  Rightness,  27. 

Woods,  Dr.  H.  G.     Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 

Wright,  Rev.  C.  H.  H.  Book  of  Genesis  in 
Hebrew  Text,  27  ;  Book  of  Ruth  in  Hebrew 
Text,  27  ;  Daniel  and  its  Critics,  27  ;  Daniel 
and  his  Prophecies,  27  ;  Light  from  Egyptian 
Papyri,  27. 

Wright,  G.  H.  Bateson.  Book  of  Job,  27 ; 
Was  Israel  ever  in  Egypt  ?  27. 

Wright,  W.,  and  Dr.  Hirsch,  edited  by.  Com- 
mentary on  the  Book  of  Job,  27. 

Wundt,  Wilhelm.    Outlines  of  Psychology,  32. 

Wysor.     Metallurgy,  50. 

Yale  Psychological  Laboratory,  Studies  from, 

32- 
Yellow  Book  of  Lecan,  42. 

Zoega,  G.  T.  English-Icelandic  Dictionary,  42. 
Zompolides,    Dr.   D.      A   Course  of    Modern 
Greek,  42. 


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